Commercialized listening tests can significantly impact test-takers’ lives, as they are often required for purposes such as immigration, employment opportunities, and university admissions. However, there is a noticeable research gap regarding the content validity of these tests. To address the gap, this study aims to examine the semantic features of the simulated mini-lectures in the listening sections of the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) and the International English Language Testing System (IELTS) to explore the content validity of the two tests.

This study utilized two study corpora, the IELTS corpus with 68 mini-lectures (46,823 words) and the TOEFL corpus with 285 mini-lectures (207,296 words). The reference corpus comprised 59 lectures from the Michigan Corpus of Academic Spoken English (MICASE), totaling 571,354 words. The theoretical framework employed in the study is frame semantics that asserts words should be understood within cognitive frames. The data was submitted to Wmatrix5 for automatized semantic tagging, which generated 488 semantic frames. Three comparisons were conducted: IELTS vs. TOEFL, IELTS vs. MICASE lectures, and TOEFL vs. MICASE lectures.

The results suggest that the mini-lectures of IELTS listening tests cover fewer academic discourse fields than TOEFL mini-lectures. Therefore, it is suggested that IELTS test developers prioritize materials resembling genuine academic lectures over non-specialist texts. TOEFL test developers should extend the coverage of the test content and continue to mirror the academic discourse.

Furthermore, IELTS and TOEFL mini-lectures reflected the similarity of 78% and 64% of the examined semantic frames respectively, underlining their relative authenticity. Similarly, a pervasive ‘objectivity’ was evident across all three corpora, with emotion-related categories being sparse. Nevertheless, specific topics, such as politics, war, and intimate and sexual relationships, were notably absent from the test corpora, even though they appeared in the academic lecture corpus.

Finally, as the simulated mini-lectures in IELTS and TOEFL are significantly shorter than authentic lectures, the positive results supporting the authenticity of the simulated lectures are attenuated. It is necessary to confirm whether these mini-lectures in the listening tests can engage test takers in the same cognitive processes as authentic academic lectures.

Score reliability is one of the major facets of modern validity frameworks in language assessment. Specifically, within the argument-based validation of assessments, reliability functions as indispensable evidence in the cause-effect dynamic of generalization and higher-level validity inferences. The present study aims to determine the average reliability of L2 reading tests, identify the potential moderators of reliability in L2 reading comprehension tests and explore the potential power of reliability in predicting the relationship between generalization and explanation inferences.

A reliability generalization (RG) meta-analysis was conducted to compute the average reliability coefficient of L2 reading comprehension tests and identify the potential predictor variables that moderate reliability. I examined 1883 individual studies from Scopus, the Web of Science, ERIC, and LLBA databases for possible inclusion and assessed 266 studies as eligible for the inclusion criteria. Out of these, I extracted 85 Cronbach’s alpha estimates from 60 studies (years 2002-2023) that reported Cronbach’s alpha estimates properly and coded 28 potential predictors comprising of the characteristics of the study, the test, and test-takers. A linear mixed-effects model (LMEM) analysis was subsequently conducted to test for the predictive power of reliability coefficient in the relationship between generalization and explanation inferences. I further examined the impact of Cronbach’s alpha coefficient on the correlation between L2 reading comprehension tests and various language proficiency measures. This involved the reliability estimates of reading comprehension tests from 24 studies and 189 correlation data points between the reading comprehension tests and measures of language proficiency categorized into 11 groups.

The RG meta-analysis found an average reliability of 0.78 (95% CI [0.76, 0.80]) with 40% of Cronbach’s coefficients falling below the lower bound of the confidence interval. The results of a heterogeneity test of Cronbach’s alphas indicated significant heterogeneity across studies (I2 = 97.58%) with variances partitioned into sampling error (2.42%), within-study (24.64%) and between-study (72.95%) differences. The number of test items and test-takers’ L1 were found to explain 19.65% and 13.70% of variation in the reliability coefficients across the studies, respectively. The LMEM analysis showed that alpha coefficients do not predict the correlation between reading comprehension tests and other measures of language proficiency. The implications of this study, its limitations and future studies are further discussed.

Citation counts, although controversial, have long been used as a yardstick for research evaluation. The normative view regards citing as a means to credit scientific contributions, so the number of citations reflects not only scholarly attention but also research quality. However, the application of social constructivist theory introduces a nuanced perspective, asserting that a variety of factors unrelated to scientific merit can potentially influence citation counts. This dual nature of citation practices has been widely discussed across disciplines, yet it remains an underexplored domain in applied linguistics. This bibliometric study, with a particular interest in highly cited papers, aimed to investigate the citation patterns of applied linguistics research over two decades as well as the complexity that underpins their making.

The dataset consists of 302 Quartile-1 journal papers that rank in the top 1% by citations in applied linguistics literature (2000-2022), with their detailed bibliometric information collected from Scopus (as of March 2023). Building upon literature, we considered a total of eleven extrinsic factors independent of scientific quality but could potentially affect citation counts, covering journal-related, author-related, and article-related features, respectively. Descriptive analysis was applied to unfold the citation landscape of targeted papers over time characterized by each factor. After a primary look at the bivariate relationship between variables through correlation analysis, multiple linear regression models were adopted to simultaneously examine the extent to which predictor variables are associated with citation outcomes.

The results showed that in the best regression model, time-normalized citations were significantly predicted by six factors: journal prestige, accessibility, co-authorship, research performance, title, and subfield of applied linguistics. The remaining five factors did not exhibit any statistical significance, including internationality, geographical origin, funding, references, and methodology. Certain underlying social mechanisms were further unraveled, among which visibility explains the roles of significant factors in a unified manner, accelerating the recognition and dissemination of research discoveries in the dedicated field. The explanatory strength of all predictors together was observed to be limited (R²=.208, p<.05), but it was expected, considering that they are extrinsic properties unrelated to scientific merit. There is no doubt that the major citation driver should be the intrinsic quality of research, and the remaining variance can be also explained by many other extrinsic features yet to be explored.

To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study that investigates a host of factors contributing to high citations in applied linguistics research. Implications of the research were also discussed, addressing the needs of both applied linguistics researchers and policymakers. We further suggested a more comprehensive approach for evaluative bibliometrics, integrating both qualitative and quantitative indicators to shed light on the whole rewarding system for only good research practices.

2004 年“汉语教师志愿者”（现更名为“国际中文教育志愿者”，后称志愿者）项目开始实施至新冠疫情（Covid-19）爆发前，大约有7000 名志愿者在全球一百多个国家进行汉语教学，其中大约3000名在东南亚各国任教，成为东南亚汉语教学的重要力量。缅甸汉语教师志愿者项目于2009 年开始实施，至今已经十多年，到缅甸新冠疫情爆发前每年有一百多名志愿者在缅甸各个城市甚至乡镇进行汉语教学工作。十多年来，缅甸汉语教师志愿者项目对缅甸汉语教学以及中缅民间文化交流发挥着重要作用。

笔者于2013 年5 月作为一名汉语教师志愿者在仰光福星孔子课堂（中国华侨大学与缅甸福建同乡总会合作建立的孔子课堂）的分校仰光博睿国际学校进行任教，三年的志愿者生涯让笔者对志愿者的工作有了深刻而细致的了解。2016年8月，笔者被孔子学院总部/中国国家汉办（现更名为“中国教育部中外语言交流合作中心”，简称“语合中心”）志愿者处选拔为缅甸志愿者管理教师，专门负责缅甸汉语教师志愿者的管理工作，直到2021年4 月，因为新冠疫情以及缅甸政变的缘故，语合中心才中止了该项目，笔者也返回中国。笔者在缅甸从事与缅甸志愿者相关工作的八年里，对志愿者工作进行了深入的观察与了解，对缅甸汉语教师志愿者项目管理工作进行了细致的梳理，总结了缅甸志愿者项目在管理方面的不足；笔者也对缅甸174名志愿者就汉语教师志愿者项目在缅甸的实施情况进行了问卷调查，深入分析缅甸汉语教师志愿者项目在缅甸的发展情况。笔者通过工作过程中观察以及对问卷的整理分析，以缅甸志愿者团队以及缅甸汉语教师志愿者项目的实施情况为主研究对象和内容，得出该项目在选派、管理、培训、教学等方面都存在问题，文章就这些方面提出了优化以及解决措施，比如,扩大志愿者选拔范围，多方参与；严格审核缅甸学校的志愿者需求申请；建立完善的志愿者管理制度；培训做到有的放矢等等。

本论文的研究成果不仅能为缅甸汉语教师志愿者项目的发展提供一些切实可行的改善措施，也为别国的志愿者项目发展提供可借鉴或参考的方案。

Research has provided evidence supporting the effects of input-based learning on learners’ language learning through Extensive Reading (ER), Extensive Listening (EL), and bimodal input (e.g., reading while listening, listening passage previewing). Less studied, however, is how input-based learning impacts learners’ language use, particularly speaking proficiency. This is important as the learners’ competence in producing the language either written or oral becomes the success parameter in learning a foreign or second language. Therefore, this study aimed to explore the potential effects of input-based learning through ER, EL, and the combination of ER and EL (EREL) on second language (L2) learners’ spoken performance.

Employing an embedded mixed-methods design, this study investigated the impact of different input-based language learning programmes on participants’ speaking skills and their perceptions of these programmes. Quantitative data were collected from students taking a Speaking for Academic Purposes (SAP) course at an English department, in a public university, Indonesia. These participants were assigned to four groups: Extensive Reading Only (ERO; n = 38), Extensive Listening Only (ELO; n = 41), Extensive Reading-Extensive Listening (EREL; n = 51), and a control group (n = 53). The extensive learning groups had access to Xreading, an online library, and each group received different language instructions. The ERO group received written texts; the ELO group received oral texts, and the EREL group received language input from both written and oral texts. The control group, however, was not exposed to Xreading platform. The study adopted a quasi-experimental design to assess learners’ language skills (listening comprehension, reading comprehension, and vocabulary knowledge), and their speaking performances. Prior to conducting statistical analysis, the Rasch model was conducted to prepare learners’ language skills, and the many - facet Rasch measurement was applied to validate their speaking skills. Furthermore, the qualitative data were gathered from the questionnaires, learning logs, and focus group interviews to investigate the participants’ perceptions about the extensive learning programmes. The data were analysed using MaxQDA, a qualitative analysis application, to augment the quantitative findings.

The results of this study, as suggested from repeated-measures MANOVA and oneway ANOVA, indicate significant progress in language skills and speaking performance across each experimental group. In terms of gains from their pre and post -test, the EREL group performs better in listening and speaking compared to the control group. In addition, from the qualitative data results of the questionnaires and focus group interviews, the participants in both EREL and control groups believe that engaging with written and oral texts is important for their language development (e.g., vocabulary, listening, reading, and speaking) as they believe this helps them learn new vocabulary and improve the pronunciation of these words in language production. However, the students in the experimental group showed little interest to record their experiences in learning logs as post activities. They perceived these tasks as potentially discouraging further engagement in reading and listening activities. Despite this, the study offers valuable suggestions for future implementation regarding input-based learning, directed towards teachers and practitioners in classroom settings.

To support an increasing number of students with Special Educational Needs (SEN) in mainstream schools, it is important for teachers to differentiate their instruction to meet the varied needs of students. This study examined the current levels of use of differentiated instruction and academic progress monitoring practices among 98 Primary School English Language (EL) teachers in Singapore (81% female, average of 16.1 years in service) to support students with dyslexia in their classroom. It also explores teachers’ existing attitudes towards inclusion, self-efficacy for inclusive practices, and perceptions of student diversity. The study also examined if teachers’ attitudes, self-efficacy, and perceptions of student diversity can predict their use of differentiated instruction and academic progress monitoring practices, and the mediating role of teachers’ self-efficacy for inclusive practices. Results indicated that teachers’ self-efficacy significantly predicted their differentiated instruction and academic progress monitoring practices. Teachers’ perceptions of student diversity significantly predicted their differentiated instruction practices and marginally predicted academic progress monitoring practices. However, teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion did not predict both differentiated instruction and academic progress monitoring practices. Teachers’ self-efficacy for inclusive practices fully mediated the relationship between teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion and their differentiated instruction practices. Findings from this study add to our understanding on the influence of various teacher factors on teachers’ inclusive practices in the classroom and highlights the importance of building teachers’ self-efficacy for inclusive practices. Limitations, possible future research, and implications of the results were discussed.

Online teaching and learning for the professional development of workers in service is ever pervasive and continually growing. Yet, studies of teaching and learning with technology are mostly conducted in K-12, pre-service, or higher education contexts resulting in a lack of attention given to the in-service or professional development field. This study aims to alleviate the issue by investigating online courses in a professional development context, particularly in a government institution such as the Financial Education and Training Agency (FETA) under the Indonesian Ministry of Finance. By conducting a study in the institution providing online professional development courses, this study focuses on adult learners.

There are also more studies investigating learners compared to instructors, even though the latter are reportedly struggling in conducting online courses. One of the struggles instructor faces includes choosing relevant technologically enhanced andragogy that are in line with the learning contents and intents. This happened amidst the growth of online professional development courses due to increasing demand accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic. Online learning needs to be improved not only in terms of quantity but also quality.

By analysing 148 curriculum documents known as the course syllabi, followed by interviewing three gatekeepers and seven instructors conducting online courses at FETA, and informed by prevailing theories of education and educational technology adoption, the present study aimed to uncover practice-based considerations in crafting online course curricula for professional development. Frameworks used in this study include the adult learning principles of andragogy, the Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy, and the Substitution, Augmentation, Modification, and Redefinition (SAMR) model.

The study found the distinction between various types of online courses for professional development: distance learning, webinars, and web-based learning courses. Distance learning can be supplemented with prerequisite and/or action learning. Web-based learning can be limited to specific learners or opened to the general population of learners depending on the learning content. The study also found connections between learning objectives and the use of technology in online courses. The considerations in choosing internet-assisted course types and relevant technologies for online courses include learning content. Characteristics of learning content are considered, such as range, specificity, and confidentiality. These characters correspond to the specification of learners which are adult learners. Both content and audience are considered in crafting online course curricula.

The findings gathered through this study may not only sharpen the crafting of online course curricula but also assist in providing effective support for online teaching and learning. It provides a better understanding of the connection between learning content and the use of technology for online courses in a professional development context meant for adult learners. Such a better understanding of instructors’ considerations helped explain why online course curricula are crafted with certain approaches. It is hoped that the considerations borne by this study can be useful in guiding the practice of designing the curricula for online courses in professional development contexts for adult learners while assisting in providing relevant support for instructors.

Music composing has been regarded to lie at the heart of music pedagogy (e.g., Winters, 2012) as it has been argued to underpin the development of musical skills and understanding (Glover, 2002; Odam, 1995; Paynter, 1982). P. R. Webster (2013) went as far as to say that music composing increases musical intelligence. Music composing has also been argued to promote the development of imagination, inventiveness, and creativity (Paynter, 2000; P. R. Webster, 2013). Additionally, music composing promotes agency development (Cape, 2014; Mantie, 2008). Moreover, music composing (particularly songwriting) has been shown to contribute to mental health (Baker, 2016; Baker et al., 2009; Dalton & Krout, 2006; Kinney, 2012; Kumm, 2013; Palidofsky & Stolbach, 2012; Rio & Tenney, 2002; Silverman, 2013; Wolf & Wolf, 2012). Finally, music composing contributes towards national economy when individuals become professional music composers in the realm of popular music.

Despite these benefits, music composing is insufficiently taught in schools (e.g., Hogenes et al., 2015; Juntunen, 2011; Lum et al., 2014; Makris et al., 2022; Menard, 2015; Suomi et al., 2022; Westerlund & Partti, 2013) due to a lack of teaching confidence and know-how among other reasons (C. Byrne & Sheridan, 1998; Lum & Dairianathan, 2014; Strand, 2006; Westerlund & Partti, 2013; Winters, 2012). The manner in which the subject is taught is also a cause for concern for it tends to focus on procedural aspects rather than creativity (Wise, 2016). Additionally, there have been advocacies for more use of popular music in general music education to bridge the gap between what students enjoy outside schools versus what is taught in schools (Colquhoun, 2018; Dimitriadis, 2009; Ng, 2018).

To help address the above concerns and to inform pedagogy, the present case study examined the lifelong learning and music-songwriting processes of five professional popular music composers (including me as one of the participants) in Singapore. The specific research questions for the present study are: (a) What are the thinking processes of professional music-songwriters when composing popular music? (b) How are lived experiences, attitudes towards music, beliefs or anything else involved when professional music-songwriters compose popular music? (c) How do professional music-songwriters learn to compose popular music? The study involves two components: (a) narrative biography; and (b) music-songwriting task. For the latter, the Stimulated Recall (STR) method (Burden et al., 2015; Calderhead, 1981; Collins, 2005, 2007; Lyle, 2003; Pohjannoro, 2014, 2016) was used. Data collected consists of interviews and autobiography (for me as participant) as well as artifacts (Musical Instrument Digital Interface [MIDI] files, audio files and Digital Audio Workstation [DAW] session files) as stimuli for the STR method. Dual Process Theory (DPT) which attributes human information processing to System 1 (S1) and System 2 (S2) thinking modes (Frankish & Evans, 2009) was adopted to underpin the present study.

Themes emerged from the data of the present study include: (a) Music songwriters employed S1-S2 synergy with agility for creativity; (b) music-songwriters employed imagination and adaptation to create novelty; (c) music-songwriters worked under constraints and trade-offs defined by client specifications, design integrity and music theory compliance; (d) music-songwriters considered affect as an impetus for music-songwriting; (e) music-songwriters adopted composing strategies often involving digital technology; (f) music-songwriters learned through lifelong engagement in a wide range of musical activities; and (g) learning motivation of music-songwriters was contingent on five social factors.

The present study is novel in that by studying both the composing and learning processes in a single study, it established the relationship between the modes of listening (distracted, attentive and purposive) during learning and the modes of thinking (S1 and S2 according to DPT) during music-songwriting. Findings from the present study implicate the need for teachers to perform two roles: (a) to help learners build a foundation for learning music-songwriting; and (b) to facilitate the process of music songwriting.