Master of Science (Exercise and Sport Studies)
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- PublicationRestrictedAcute effect of downhill running on muscle viscoelastic properties of well-trained male athletes(2016)Ho, Yieng YiengSkeletal muscles serve primarily as force generators to produce movement, maintain posture, stabilise joints and generate heat. The ability of muscles to dissipate the mechanical energy of external impact and unload the joints is also essential in physical activities. In this study, myotonometry was used to assess the acute effect of downhill running on the muscle viscoelastic properties.
Six well-trained male athletes, aged between 22 and 27 years old, were recruited for this within-subject study. They were tasked to run downhill at a gradient of 10º for 40 minutes on a treadmill at a speed equivalent to 80% of the maximal heart rate achieved during level running. Muscle tone, stiffness and elasticity of rectus femoris, biceps femoris, ibialis anterior and gastrocnemius medialis of both the lower limbs of each subject were measured using the MyotonPRO.
Between-day reliability of the MyotonPRO was assessed using mean coefficient of variation (muscle tone, CV < 2.6%; stiffness, CV < 3.5 %; elasticity, CV < 6.8%) and the Wilcoxon signed rank-test was performed on three dependent variables for each muscle to detect the acute effect of downhill running on the stiffness, decrement and muscle tone of each muscle. Statistical significance was set at p < .05. Differences were also considered practically meaningful if the effect size was large (r ≥ .5). The findings revealed that the MyotonPRO was reliable in monitoring muscle viscoelastic properties between days. The lower leg muscles, tibialis anterior and gastrocnemius medialis, seemed more sensitive than the thigh muscles to downhill running. An increase in muscle stiffness and tone of both the tibialis anterior (2.4% ) and gastrocnemius medialis (4.1%) were observed post-exercise. On the contrary, a decrease in the muscle stiffness of rectus femoris (-1.9%) and elasticity of tibialis anterior (-3.7%) were detected.
The findings of this experiment may not be directly applicable to prevent injury. However, it does show the potential of the MyotonPRO being used as a tool to monitor training demand to ensure sufficient rest between training bouts. Over time, results of the usage of MyotonPRO can be collected to build a database. These data can be further segmentized and categorized to create a meaningful reference point for practitioners to interpret results of the tool and its significance accordingly. This, in turn, might potentially reduce the occurrence of overuse injuries.279 44 - PublicationRestrictedAcute effects of using mask during exercise on physiological indices(2023)Lim, Boon KwangPurpose: Mask confers protection against Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) transmission during the pandemic but there are concerns on its use during exercise. Our study sought to broaden existing studies by investigating the impact of use of cloth mask on Time-to-Exhaustion (TTE), physiological indices, OMNI Rate of Perceived Exertion (RPE) and Ratings of Mask Discomfort (RMD) at Lactate Threshold (LT) and Peak Exercise. RMD were measured in 5 different areas: Overall Mask Discomfort (OMD), Breathing Resistance (BR), Hotness Warmness Stuffiness (HWS), Odour or Smelly (OS) and Itchiness (ITCH).
Methods: Participants were randomised and assigned to either cloth mask (CM) or no mask (NM) condition, to undergo a discontinuous incremental treadmill running protocol. All indices were recorded at the end of each incremental stage. All participants crossover to perform the same test for the other condition at the end of 7-day washout period. Significance of all statistical analysis was set at P < 0.05, unless otherwise stated.
Results: Wearing of CM significantly affect overall physiological indices, RPE and RMD (P < 0.05). Overall, VO2, OMD, BR, HWS, OS were significantly different for NM and CM conditions (P < 0.05) while Heart Rate (HR) (P = 0.09), blood lactate (P = 0.29), RPE (P = 0.42) and ITCH (P = 0.34) were not significantly different between conditions. At peak exercise, almost all indices [TTE, Maximum Oxygen Uptake (VO2max), HR, lactate, Minute Ventilation (VE), Respiratory Rate (RR), OMD, BR, HWS] were significantly different between conditions (P < 0.05). Only OS and ITCH were not significantly different. At LT, VO2, VE, OMD, BR and HWS indicated significant differences between conditions while the remaining indices (Speed, HR, lactate, RR, RPE, OS and ITCH) did not differ between conditions.
Conclusion: Amidst significant changes in physiological indices associated with wearing of mask during exercise, there were higher perceptual discomforts though generally tolerable by healthy active population at light intensities to LT. Wearing of CM during exercise at high intensity levels are generally not advisable as almost all indices in our study were significantly different and may potentially cause adverse physiological or physical response. At the same time, this finding presents an opportunity for individuals and exercise practitioners to modify and adapt their programming in achieving training objectives.120 6 - PublicationRestrictedAn archaeological analysis of Vision 2030 and Vision 2030 Recharged in Singapore(2022)Ang, Han TengBackground. Vision 2030 (Sport Singapore, 2012) is one of the most important sports policies in Singapore history. The 20 recommendations issued in 2012 offered direction for sports in Singapore, and sports in Singapore have since risen to a whole new level. With ever-changing demands and trends in Singapore and throughout the world, Sport Singapore reviewed the Vision 2030 in 2019 and gathered public feedback to determine the course for the years ahead. Sport Singapore issued a total of 15 recommendations stemming from the eight themes, dubbed as Vision 2030 Recharged, to define the future of sports in Singapore.
Objectives. The purpose of this study is to reveal the linkages on the discourses with the statements made for Vision 2030 and Vision 2030 Recharged that might have impressed certain policy decisions. This study does so by comprehending the situations, the importance of the individuals who can exercise power involved in the announcement, and the significance of the institutional venues where the announcements were made.
Methods. This study employs an archaeological analysis that Foucault (1972) used in his book, ‘the archaeology of knowledge and discourse on language’ to examine the changes and evolution of sports policy in Singapore from the 2010s to the present. Materials examined included materials from the Singapore government ministries and sports government agency's websites, national report archives, newspaper archives, online articles, books, and journal publications. The papers obtained from these sources were government statistics, records, formal speeches by Ministers and government officials, newspaper stories and advertising, historical and Singapore-related books, and journal articles.
Results. This study discovered that Vision 2030 has influenced Singapore's Sporting scene, and the Vision 2030 Recharged allowed the Singapore government to refine the goals further to suit the needs of Singaporeans. By allowing Singaporeans to enjoy refreshed sports facilities throughout the city-state, Sport Singapore (SportSG) provided better access and affordability to sports and exercise facilities for all Singaporeans. Coupled with the demand and interest in particular sports, state-of-the-art facilities for sports such as football, tennis, and cycling would further enable more involvement among Singaporeans, as well as allow Singapore to push the boundaries further by bringing in large-scale (regional and international) tournaments for these sports. With suitable facilities, more community-level events and activities may be held for all Singaporeans, especially vulnerable groups (e.g., atrisk youth, people with disabilities (PwD), and vulnerable elders). With the alarming situation of increased youth arrests, low PwD sports participation levels, and an aging population, the SportCares movement assisted in alleviating these difficulties via the utilization of sports. The ActiveSG Academies and Clubs were also established to give more economical yet high-quality coaching and training for Singaporeans.
Conclusion. Through the efforts and policies implemented, it was evident that adequate infrastructure was vital. Proper and adequate facilities were understood to be quintessential to any efforts to promote community-level sports. Ministers and leaders of government agencies spoke on various occasions and were influential in highlighting the need for greater access to facilities and how community activities at these facilities could positively impact Singaporeans in leading a healthy and active lifestyle. This study advises investigating global and local trends such as the expansion of esports, taking into account the impact of covid 19, and how efforts on sustainability and inclusion may be enhanced in the future. When combined with the current efforts, the next 10 years of the sporting environment in Singapore will be fascinating for all sports aficionados.449 41 - PublicationRestrictedBiomechanical profile of the snatch in Singapore National Olympic weightlifters(2023)Ang, Cheng LoongTraditionally, kinematic, and kinetic analysis of weightlifting movement is done in a laboratory setting which is hard to implement in a field setting. This study uses a field-based method using in-shoe force sensors and videos to conduct biomechanical profiling of the snatch movement performed by Singapore National Olympic Weightlifters. The participants of the study consist of three male and three female weightlifters (age: 25.17 ± 1.72) that compete in the men’s 67kg (n=1) and 81kg (n=2) weight categories and the female weightlifters compete for the woman’s 49kg (n=1) and 55kg (n=2) weight categories. There were multiple parameters involving the barbell velocity, force, power, and barbell trajectory that were measured in this study. The ground reaction force was measured using in-shoe force sensors loadsol® (novel, Munich, Germany). The trajectory of the barbell was obtained by using the method of video analysis of the snatch attempts performed by the weightlifters. The video was captured using a video camera and analysed using sports analytic software Kinovea (version 0.9.5). Peak and mean measures of velocity, force, and power were calculated using codes written for MATLAB through a 4th order 12 Hz low-pass Butterworth filter. The participants of the study were asked to performed snatches that were at the weight of 80% to 90% of their one repetition maximum that they had achieved during competition, the best three of their snatch attempts were then used for the analysis. The field-based method was able to identify technical differences among the weightlifters from the variability in their trajectory and the deficit in terms of force production and velocity. The data obtained provided some consideration and possible ideas for future training modalities for weightlifters. It also illustrated a practical low-cost and short set-up-time non-lab setting method to measure the kinematics and kinetics of the snatch, providing a platform for future research in the sport of Olympic weightlifting.
95 4 - PublicationRestrictedChanges in back muscles function after physical training among emergency responders(2022)Roslan Abdul Ghani Mohamed JamilEmergency responders such as firefighters and paramedics are expected to be physically fit in order to cope more effectively with the challenging demands during emergency situations and to reduce work-related injuries, especially low back pain. Functional training programs have been shown to be safe and effective for military, public safety, and the general population. They involve exercises that mimic movements which emergency responders will encounter on a day-to-day basis, and hence may be beneficial to aid them perform better and to also reduce injuries. The aim of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of conventional and functional physical training on the back muscle functions (muscle strength, muscle stiffness and muscle fatigability) in emergency responders. Initially, a total of 58 participants were randomly allocated into two separate groups, conventional (n = 29) and functional (n = 29), to undergo physical training across a period of 8 weeks. Eventually, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, a total of 24 managed to complete the training (15 conventional group, 9 functional group). Muscle function and performance were objectively quantified using strength test, stiffness test, and Biering-Sorensen test before and after the intervention. Results showed that back muscle strength improved (p < .001) after both types of training. Stiffness of the longissimus muscle increased in the right side (p = 0.002) but not the left side (p = 0.845) after both types of training. Also, muscle fatigability of the right longissimus muscle improved (p = 0.035) but no significant difference (p = 0.116) observed on the left side after both types of training. There was no difference between conventional and functional groups in any outcome measures. In conclusion, back muscles strength, muscle stiffness and muscle fatigability improved after 8 weeks of physical training. While the effects were similar between the conventional and functional training, some differences were noted between the left and right back longissimus muscles.
131 9 - PublicationRestrictedCharacter development through physical education : perspectives of PE teachers(2005)Chan, Marie Poh SuanIf physical education (PE) embodies character development and is the edification of moral values, are PE teachers teaching values and character in their PE classes? This descriptive study aimed to determine the current status, support and level of character development in the PE classes of PE teachers who believe in the importance of such development. It aimed to establish how these PE teachers facilitate the teaching processes, the difficulties they face and the contributing success factors. It also intended to elicit the beliefs, values, perspectives, and challenges that PE teachers have regarding the teaching of values in their PE classes, and to identify a common set of core values that they desire in their students. A total of five PE teachers participated in the study by completing a questionnaire and having at least one of their PE lessons videotaped and analysed. The results indicated that the respondents tried to teach character education during their PE classes but the majority did not have a structured Physical Education-Character Development Programme (PECDP). The respondents believed that it was their moral responsibility to inculcate values and build character in their students. They generally would like to have resources, guidelines, training and more curriculum time to teach character and promote values in their PE classes. They believed that PE was a good channel to teach moral values to students because PE is holistic in its nature, philosophy and aims. The respondents felt that by integrating character development into PE, it would be a fun out-of-classroom environment to teach values and character. PE was able to offer the experiential learning environment for moral issues to be discussed and addressed. The seven common core values that PE teachers desired in their students were integrity, determination, discipline, cooperation, sportsmanship, perseverance, and excellence.
865 95 - PublicationRestrictedCognitive performance and obesity : comparison of memory scores difference between obese and normal-weight adolescents in a junior college in Singapore(2006)Boh, Boon TiongThis study examined the differences in memory performance, a component of cognitive performance, between obese and normal-weight adolescents in a junior college in Singapore. Previous studies have indicated that there is negative association between obesity and cognitive performance. Specifically, obesity is linked to poorer educational attainment, intelligence test performance and neuropsychological test performance. Evaluating the memory component of cognitive performance was the focus in this study as memory capacity is often a key determinant of academic development.
Thirty-four normal-weight and thirty obese adolescent participants were recruited from a junior college. Their memory performance was tested using the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test, which is the first time this test is being used to assess the memory of adolescents. This test conventionally involves reading out of words by the tester for the participants to recall later in each trial. The aim of this memory test was to assess the verbal memory performance of these participants at eight different word recall trials. This study also achieved a milestone in creating a computerised version of Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test, which was used to automate the instructional process and facilitate a consistent pace of verbalising of words to be recalled to the participants. Body mass index, waist circumference and General Certificate of Education Ordinary Level (GCE 'O' Level score) score of the participants were analysed via t tests and their socioeconomic status (i.e., father's / mother's educational level, and type of housing) was compared using Mann Whitney U tests. Repeated ANOVA statistical analysis was conducted to examine the main effect of body composition across trials. A series of univariate ANOVA analysis were conducted to examine the mean differences in word recall performance at the eight trials of memory scores in different scoring categories between obese and normal-weight participants.
Educational attainment of the obese group revealed slightly poorer GCE 'O' Levels results upon entry to the GCE 'A' Level course in the junior college than their normal-weight counterparts. There was no significant difference between normal-weight and obese participants on the indicators of housing category, mother's education and overall socioeconomic status. However father's education of the obese group was significantly higher than the normal-weight group. As the main effect for body composition, F (1, 62) = 11.30, p < .005 was significant, this indicated that obese participants recalled significantly lesser words in all trials and memory scores categories than normal-weight participants.
In this study, obese participants had poorer verbal memory performance as compared to the normal-weight participants. The role of socioeconomic status of the participants could not adequately account for the money difference between both groups. The lower GCE 'O' Level results of the obese group is unlikely to explain its poorer memory performance as both obese and normal-weight participants represented the top 11% of academic achievers at entry into the GCE 'A' Level course in this junior college in Singapore. This study recommends future research examining the influence of obesity on memory performance to explore the possibility of the subnormal dopaminergic system, particularly in the striatum region of the brain, as it was postulated to be a possible causative agent that might play a role in both obesity and memory deficit. This study also suggests looking into weight loss strategies such as exercise as a possible intervention measure to manage memory deficit in obesity.170 16 - PublicationRestrictedThe development of netball in Singapore(2004)Cheang, Audrey Poh GeokStudies of sport in Singapore rarely examine the development of individual sports associations, or attempt to identify how the members successfully coordinate their actions to create a viable organization. To become a well-managed and vibrant women's sports association necessitate its leaders' ability to deal with contextual issues as they emerged.
This study examined the development of netball in Singapore. It focused on the years after 1962, when the body organizing the sport was officially registered as an association. Netball's rise to the pre-eminent women's sport in Singapore has been based on the decision-making skills of the women in the sport.
The scarcity on research and the limited availability of written documents pertaining to netball in Singapore constrained the method of inquiry. The context necessitated an approach that relied on analysis of existing and newly generated information. Using criterion sampling, the researcher initially identified three officials as key participants, who served the netball association over the 40 years history. These women were in decision-making positions for the programmes and events for the sport in that period.
This study suggests that the key factors in successfully expanding the local interest in a women's team sport are competent leadership competent leadership skill, namely recognizing, seizing and creating opportunities to enhance the sport's image and to develop an accurate sense of timing of the appropriate actions.484 20 - PublicationRestrictedEffectiveness of leadership development for students in sports CCA in Singapore schools(2014)Koh, Morris Leong SengParents, coaches and school administrators assumed that students would acquire important life-skills and develop leadership qualities through engagement in sports (Gould, Carson, Fifer, Lauer & Benham, 2009). However, there was little evidence to assume that involvement in sports would prepare students to assume leadership roles (Wright & Côté, 2003). But, there are beliefs that sports do provide an avenue to develop student leadership (Gilbert, Gilbert & Trudel, 2001; Lee, 2012).
The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of leadership development of students in sports Co-Curricular Activities (CCAs) in Singapore schools. In this study, views were sought from participants’ perceptions on the current effectiveness of leadership development for team captains in sports CCAs. It examined the leadership development opportunities that team captains have experienced during their engagement in sports. Comparisons were also made with input received from male and female participants in team and individual sports.
Research has shown that one of the ways to develop leadership skill is through sport (Lee, 2012). Indeed, students in Singapore are given ample opportunities to develop such skill through a variety of co-curricular programmes such as sports CCA. Secondly, the Ministry of Education (MOE) has increased financial support to schools so that they can provide more opportunity for student leadership development programmes through sport. However, there have been limited studies done to investigate the effectiveness of student leadership development in sports CCA. Forty participants including male athletes (n=22) and female (n=14) athletes, together with two male coaches and two male teachers, volunteered for this study. Athletes from two team sports, rugby (n=11) and volleyball (n=6), and two individual sports, bowling (n=8) and table tennis (n=11) were purposefully selected to participate in this study. Results from this study indicated that schools have put in effort to train their team captains. Team captains reported that they have benefitted from attending leadership training camps. They shared how they learnt to think out of the box and experienced the importance of perseverance. However, teachers indicated that there was a need to follow up with team captains after those camps have ended to ensure there is a transfer of learning. Team captains reported that they needed guidance to help them link what they have learnt from the camps to perform their role as captain of the team better. Results from this study provide valuable information for schools to adopt a more holistic approach to student leadership development in sports CCA.550 118 - PublicationRestrictedEffects of age, gender and sport-type on sources of sport-confidence(2001)Poh, Yu KhingSelf-confidence has a dramatic influence on sport performance. In order to better understand what athletes do, or what helps to boost their self-confidence, Vealey, Hayashi, Garner-Holman, and Giacobbi (19998) developed the Sources of Sport-confidence Questionnaire (SSCQ). The subscales within the SSCQ represent nine sources of sport-confidence: mastery, demonstration of ability, mental and physical preparation, physical self-perception, social support, vicarious experience, environmental comfort, situational favourableness, and coaches' leadership.
This investigation sought to discover the differences in sources of sport-confidence across age, gender and sport-type for Singaporean student athletes using the SSCQ. To date, no investigation has examined such factors in detail. Apart from contributing to the current literature on sport-confidence, such knowledge will also help advance the relatively new field of applied sport psychology in Singapore.
The sample for this study was comprised of male (N=234) and female (N=219) student athletes from various secondary schools and junior colleges in Singapore. A multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA), with number of years of sport experience as the covariate, showed that there were significant main effects for age and sport-type on sources of sport-confidence. Younger athletes (14-15 years of age) rated mastery, mental & physical preparation, and coaches' leadership as being more important sources of sport-confidence than older athletes (17-18 years of age) to a significant extent. Team-sport athletes rated the SSCQ subscale of social support as a more important source of sport-confidence compared to individual-sport athletes to a significant extent.
This study suggests that certain sources of sport-confidence are deemed to be more important in contributing towards an athlete's sport related self-confidence. This underscores the importance of considering the sources of sport-confidence that different athletes use in different contexts so that the best intervention strategy for enhancing confidence and sustaining motivation can be applied.200 18 - PublicationRestrictedEffects of an imagery training programme on performance, self-confidence, and anxiety in high school volleyball and elite netball players(2000)Shepherd, David J.The importance of psychological skills as mediating factors in athletic success have been well documented. In particular, research has generally supported the efficacy of mental imagery as an effective technique in enhancing physical skill and manipulating psychological skills, however the mechanisms for this have been equivocal (Driskell, Cooper & Moran, 1994). Hall, Mack, Paivio, & Hausenblas (1998) have identified five functions of imagery and have suggested specific outcomes are favoured by specific functions of imagery.
This investigation assessed the effectiveness of Cognitive Specific (CS), Motivational General - Arousal (MG-A), and Motivational General - Mastery (MG-M) imagery on physical performance, pre-competitive state anxiety, self -confidence, and imagery use. Participants were female high school volleyball players (n=13) and elite, national level, netball players (n=30). The dependent variables were measured using the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory - 2 (Martens, Burton, Vealey, Bump & Smith, 1990), Sports Imagery Questionnaire (Hall, Mack, Paivio & Hausenblas, 1998), and physical performance evaluations and tests. Multivariate analysis of covariance and follow up univariate analysis of covariance determined differences between the treatment and control groups on the dependent measures.
The results supported the efficacy of imagery as a mediating factor in enhancing physical performance, increasing state self-confidence, and reducing state anxiety levels. The participants reported significant increases in their use of the three functions of imagery included in the intervention, and both athletes and coaches were in general agreement as to the usefulness and effectiveness of the programme.
This research has contributed to the view that imagery functions relate to a specific outcome and that an effective intervention must take account of a range of important mediating factors. It was suggested that imagery interventions should include an education and development phase and be devised with the specific needs of the individual or team as a central tenet. Finally, generalizability of imagery efficacy has been enhanced as the investigation was conducted in Asia, using female team sport players in a non-contrived competitive setting.297 27 - PublicationRestrictedEffects of anchoring of mindfulness on a competitive standing-start reaction time task(2016)Toh, Danica Shi YeePresent literature suggests that the independent use of mindfulness and anchoring benefits the performance in sports – till date, anchoring of mindfulness to enhance performance has yet been examined. Mindfulness is defined as having consciousness at the present moment when engaged in a task. Numerous studies have been conducted to advocate that mindfulness improves one’s performance at sports activities. Separately, anchoring methods have also been used to improve sports performance. It is the use of cues to improve a person’s focus on the perceived action that will benefit the desired outcome. In this study, a chime was used to get participants to focus on centring of their breath so as to achieve mindfulness. The aim of this research is to test if anchoring techniques used for mindfulness benefits standing-start reaction time (SSRT) task performance in a simulated competitive situation, with reaction time as the dependent variable. Ninety participants aged between 18 and 45 years old (M = 23.96; SD = 2.70; Mdn = 22) took part in the study and they were recruited at random. Of the 90 participants, 80 successfully completed the pre-test and post-test. There were 33 males (M = 23.63; SD = 7.44; Mdn = 21) and 47 females (M = 24.2; SD = 9.16; Mdn = 24) who had participated and completed the test. Participants were randomly appointed into 3 separate groups – a control group (C), a mindfulness only group (M), and an anchoring of mindfulness group (MA). The pre-test and posttest design was adopted and participants underwent intervention in between the two tests. Participants were also administered the state Mindful Attention and Awareness Scale (MAAS; Brown & Ryan, 2003), trait Mindful Attention and Awareness Scale (MAAS; Brown & Ryan, 2003) and the state State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Adults (STAI; Spielberger, Gorsuch, Lushene, Vagg & Jacobs, 1983) questionnaires. A Shapiro-Wilk Statistic test was conducted to test for normality of the sample. As results of the Shapiro-Wilk test was not normal for reaction time, a robust method of heteroscedastic one-way ANOVA was conducted to test for similarity among the sample medians. One-way ANOVA was also conducted between condition groups to compare group differences in anxiety and state mindfulness. Results suggest that the MA group is least effective for improving reaction time. Results also indicated no significant difference between the three condition groups in state mindfulness and anxiety. None of the pair comparisons yielded significant results. Discussion carried out to address the study’s hypotheses suggests that the methodologies applied to present study may have led to the unexpected results. Effects of anchoring do not seem to sustain its intended effects on participants. The present study’s simulated competitive situation did not breed an anxiety-provoking environment. Participants may not have been able to relate the anchoring methods used to the SSRT task and hence the effects of anchoring were not present in the study. While the effects of state mindfulness may not have been achieved due to the short duration of mindfulness induction, the present study also did not find a difference in anxiety amongst the groups due to the high number of trials that participants went through. Future recommendations to this study should be directed to using athletes as the participant pool and a MTP-based longitudinal research could be more appropriate. Future adjustments to the methodology of the test should also be considered.
284 40 - PublicationRestrictedEffects of dark chocolate on physiological attributes and anaerobic performance among healthy females and males(National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University (NIE NTU), Singapore, 2024)Ng, Yew Cheo
To investigate the effects of dark chocolate milk on physiological variables such as heart rate (HR), rate of perceived exertion (RPE), fatigue index and power output during an anaerobic sprint test.
Methods: Twenty healthy participants (males: age: 23.8 ± 1.21 yrs; height: 174.51 ± 5.78 cm; weight: 73.91 ± 9.18 kg; body mass index (BMI): 24.18 ± 2.21 kg·m-2; body fat percent (BF%): 19.18 ± 6.17 %; lean muscle mass percentage: 77.95 ± 6.16 %; females: age: 26.33 ± 4.95 yrs; height: 160.69 ± 5.52 cm; weight: 55.72 ± 7.03 kg; BMI: 21.51 ± 2.02 kg·m-2; BF%: 27.24 ± 3.74 %; lean muscle mass percentage: 69.20 ± 3.70 %)) underwent a randomised single-blinded experimental design and completed 2 trials – DC and white chocolate (WC) . Participants completed a Running Anaerobic Sprint Test (RAST, 35m x 6 sprints) with RPE and HR recorded after 2nd, 4th and 6th sprint. They rested for 4 minutes and continued 2nd RAST.
Results: Paired t-test revealed significant differences between trials for 2nd RAST average timings (DC 2nd RAST: 6.43 ± 0.97 s vs WC 2nd RAST: 6.62 ± 1.05 s, p = 0.012); 2nd RAST total effort time (DC 2nd RAST: 38.58 ± 5.82 s vs WC 2nd RAST: 39.72 ± 6.28 s, p = 0.012; within trials for HR (DC 1st RAST HR 6th set: 168.75 ± 7.23 beats·min-1 vs DC 2nd RAST HR 6th set: 176.60 ± 7.72 beats·min-1, p = 0.000; WC 1st RAST HR 6th set: 170.15 ± 9.18 beats·min-1 vs WC 2nd RAST HR 6th set: 173.50 ± 7.92 beats·min-1, p = 0.010); within trials for RPE (DC 1st RPE 6th set: 7.85 ± 1.31 vs DC 2nd RAST RPE 6th set: 8.90 ± 0.97, p = 0.001; WC 1st RAST RPE 6th set: 7.90 ± 1.29 vs WC 2nd RAST RPE 6th set: 8.90 ± 1.17, p = 0.001). There were no significant differences found between DC 1st and 2nd RAST average timings (DC 1st RAST: 6.46 ± 0.98 s vs DC 2nd RAST: 6.43 ± 0.97 s, p = 0.453); WC 1st and 2nd RAST average timings (WC 1st RAST: 6.42 ± 0.77 s vs WC 2nd RAST: 6.62 ± 1.05 s, p = 0.049); DC and WC 1st RAST RPE: (DC 1st RAST RPE: 7.85 ± 1.31 vs WC 1st RAST RPE: 6.42 ± 0.77, p = 0.841); DC and WC 2nd RAST RPE: (DC 2nd RAST RPE: 8.90 ± 0.97 vs WC 2nd RAST RPE: 8.90 ± 1.17, p = 1.000).
Conclusion: Results indicated that DC supplementation significantly improved anaerobic sprint timings. Elite athletes, sports practitioners and coaches may consider implementing DC prior to training workouts and competitions to enhance sporting performance.
10 14 - PublicationRestrictedEffects of foot orthosis on ground reaction forces and perceived comfort at moderate to fast running speeds in flat-footed athletes(2019)Ng, Jun WeiFlatfoot is a flattening of the foot medial arch. This condition places athletes on higher risk of running-related injuries from sporting movement consisting of repetitive high loading on the foot. Immediate and conservative treatments such as a foot orthosis (FO) were found to benefit flatfooted individuals during standing, walking and running at submaximal speeds. In the current literature, there is a gap in the use of FO on flatfooted athletes at faster running speeds that reflect the nature of many sprint-based sports. Therefore, the present study aimed to examine the effects of a prefabricated FO for flatfooted male athletes during fast running. It was hypothesised that a prefabricated FO may benefit flatfooted male athletes during fast running speeds in reducing the vertical impact force and loading rate while increasing perceived comfort. A randomised crossover repeated measures experiment was conducted to compare within-group differences between FO and sham orthosis (control) for effects of FO. Adult male athletes (n=20) with flatfoot participating in sprint-based sports were recruited for running trials on an instrumented treadmill at three running speeds (5m/s, 6 m/s, 7 m/s). The force plates and visual analogue scale (VAS) were used to measure ground reaction force (GRF) and perceived comfort respectively. Two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with repeated measures were performed on the GRF variables while paired sample t-tests were used to analyse the perception data. Results showed that FO use increased vertical impact force (p = .005) and vertical loading rate (p = .001); increased propulsive force variability (p = .038) and loading rate variability (p = .019) across all speeds; reduced all perceived forefoot cushioning (p = .001), perceived heel cushioning (p = .002), and perceived comfort (p = .008) but increased perceived arch support (p = .001). It was discussed that increased GRF variables may be related to increased joint stiffness to reduce rearfoot overpronation in flatfooted gait, while the effect in perception and gait variability variables associated with FO use may be related to material hardness and perceived novelty, respectively. It was concluded that a prefabricated FO alters both kinetic and perception variables of flatfooted athletes during fast running. Future work can further investigate on the effect of FO on joint kinematics and on reducing risk of running-related injuries.
183 29 - PublicationRestrictedEffects of intermittent sprint and plyometric training on endurance run performance(2016)Lum, Danny Wan YinRecent studies have shown that explosive strength training like plyometric training was effective in improving leg stiffness, muscle power, running economy (RE) and endurance run performance. Intermittent sprint training has been shown to have similar neuromuscular adaptations as plyometric training. However, effects of intermittent sprint training on endurance run performance has not been studied. Therefore, the aim of this study was to compare the effects of intermittent sprint training and plyometric training on endurance run performance.
Sixteen moderately trained distance runners were recruited from various local running clubs were required to complete two preliminary testing sessions before proceeding to the intervention training sessions. The first preliminary testing session included a graded exercise test on motorised treadmill to determine each subject’s maximum oxygen consumption (VO2max), RE, leg stiffness (kleg) and vertical stiffness (kvert) at 10 km/h and 12 km/h, ultrasound scan to determine vastus lateralis muscle thickness (VLO). The second preliminary included a countermovement jump test to determine jump height, peak power and relative peak power, and a 10km time trial. Participants were randomly assigned to either the intermittent sprint (Spr) or the plyometric (Ply) training group. The Spr had to complete 12-16 repetitions of 30-50 m sprints each session. The Ply had to complete various jumping exercises that amount to a total of 80-120 jumps per session. Both intervention training took place twice per week over six weeks. During the intervention period, participants were instructed to continue with their usual endurance run training. Upon completion of the intervention training, the participants had to complete the post-tests which were the same as preliminary tests.
The results showed that there were no significant pre- and post-test differences in VO2max, RE, kleg and kvert at 10 km/h and 12 km/h, and VLO for both groups. Both groups showed significant reductions with large effect sizes in the 10 km run time from pre- to post-training. (Spr: 52:13 ± 9:12 vs 50:27 ± 8:11 min; p=0.04; ES=1.3, Ply: 50:48 ± 2:06 vs 48:56 ± 8:11 min; p=0.03; ES=1.3) despite a significant reduction in training mileage between pre- and during intervention period (Spr: 30.3 ± 15.2 vs 27.8 ± 15.5 km; p=0.03; ES=0.2 Ply: 26.0 ± 8.0 vs 21.0 ± 10.6 km; p=0.006; ES=0.5). There were no differences between groups for pre- and post-test peak power, relative peak power and jump height. Post-test result for peak power shows significant and large improvement after training for both groups (Spr: 3241 ± 155 vs 3330 ± 167 W; p=0.001; ES=2.6, Ply: 3100 ± 249 vs 3259 ± 243 W; p=0.02; ES=1.5). There was also significant improvement in relative peak power for both groups (Spr: 47.6± 6.3 vs 48.9± 6.6 W/kg; p=0.007; ES=0.2, Ply: 48.9± 5.4 vs 51.2± 5.2 W/kg; p=0.02; ES=0.4). There was a moderate inverse correlation between 10 km run time and relative peak power (r=-0.4, p=0.01).
The current study showed that intermittent sprint and plyometric training resulted in improved 10 km run performance despite decreased weekly training mileage due to participants’ busy work schedule and bad weather condition. This was accompanied by an improvement in muscular power. The improved running performance was most likely due to an improvement in muscular power, as there was a moderate correlation between relative peak power and 10 km run performance.386 84 - PublicationRestrictedThe effects of plyometric and balance training on lower extremity biomechanical variables in secondary school female netball athletes(2008)Tay, Josephine Boon LynnAnterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries occur commonly in non-contact sports, particularly in female athletes, and there are many contributory risk factors. The increased participation of females in sports in recent years has exacerbated the problem. Of the risk factors, the way in which athletes perform sports maneuvers, particularly landing and cutting maneuvers like cross-cut and side-step, holds greatest potential for modification. High varus/valgus and internal/external rotation moments at the knee encountered during sports maneuvers have been established as a risk factor to ACL injury. Plyometric and balance training have been suggested as effective measures to help reduce ACL injury risk; although it is not known which program is superior. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the relative effectiveness of an eight-week plyometric and balance training program on young female netball athletes in terms of reducing varus/valgus, and internal/external rotation moments at the knee, which may have implications on ACL injuries. In addition, the peak vertical joint reaction forces were evaluated to see if they were within safe levels as recommended by earlier research, as excessive joint reaction forces can contribute to ACL rupture.
30 secondary school female netball athletes were assigned to either a plyometric, balance, or control training group. Peak knee joint reaction forces and moments at the knee joint were measured before and after the program for three maneuvers – cross-cut, landing, and side-step. Group differences in peak knee joint reaction force, varus/valgus and internal/external rotation moments were evaluated. Results were analyzed with repeated measures ANOVA individually with speed of approach, playing experience and training group as between- subjects factors. Chi-square analysis was performed on the independence of peak vertical knee joint reaction force, varus/valgus moments, and internal/external rotation moments with speed of approach separately, using playing experience as a layer variable.
No significant group differences were found in magnitude of peak vertical knee joint reaction force and varus/valgus moments for all three maneuvers. The plyometric group showed an increase of 32% in varus/valgus moments post-test for cross-cut, and reductions of 16% for landing, 15% for side-step. The balance group demonstrated an increase of 23% for landing and a decrease of 9% for side-step. Varus/valgus moments were significantly related to speed of approach for the cross-cut maneuver in both novices and experienced athletes (novices: χ = 6.199, p = .013; experienced athletes: = 6.24, p = .012).
The control group landed with greater internal/external rotation moments than the balance group (p = .028). Comparing pre- and post-test results, the plyometric group showed a decrease of 17% in magnitude of internal/external rotation moments for the sidestep. The balance group demonstrated an increase of 16% for cross- cut. Internal/external rotation moments were significantly related to speed of approach during pre-test landing (= 6.533, p = .011).
Although the plyometric and balance training did not contribute much to reduction of peak knee joint reaction forces, there were small reductions on varus/valgus moments in both trained groups for side-stepping maneuvers. Plyometric training also shows potential for reducing internal/external rotation moments for the side-step. balance group (p = .028). Comparing pre- and post-test results, the plyometric group showed a decrease of 17% in magnitude of internal/external rotation moments for the sidestep.393 42 - PublicationRestrictedEffects of walking combined with dietary plant sterols on postprandial triglycerides in overweight Asian men(2018)Abdul Khaliq Abdul SamatPostprandial triglycerides (TG) are a risk factor for atherosclerosis, the main cause of cardiovascular disease. Plant sterols are naturally occurring compounds found in plant-based foods which hinder cholesterol absorption and may also lower TG concentration. Exercise can also lower postprandial TG. This study examined how exercise, in the presence or absence of plant sterols intake, can reduce postprandial TG in young, overweight men over 28 days (4 weeks). Ten participants underwent a 12-week double-blind, randomised, crossover, laboratory-based experimental study which involved two arms of intervention; either a placebo with walking (CON) or plant sterol with walking (PS) intervention. Fasting TG concentration for PS trial was 8% lower on Day 29 as compared with Day 1. 5 out 10 participants showed a decrease in postprandial TG concentration of 11% to 53% for CON on Day 29 as compared to Day 1. In the PS trial, 7 out of 10 participants had a decrease in incremental area under the curve (iAUC) of TG concentration which ranges between 4% to 43% lower on Day 29 as compared to Day 1. In overall, TG responses between the two arms of the intervention has no significant difference. Detraining and low energy expenditure are the main risks of high postprandial TG concentration. PS and exercise, have previously been shown to reduce postprandial TG concentration but the combination used in the present study was not effective.
189 15 - PublicationRestrictedEfficacy of a mechanical oscillator in abdominal fat, body mass and waist circumference reduction after four weeks of intervention(2007)Ang, Chloe Lay Kuan.The importance of reducing health risk associated with high abdominal fat is obvious. In Singapore, we have witnessed good sales on motorized mechanical oscillators touted to induce slimming. Such equipment works on the principles of acupressure. No study has yet been done to evaluate the efficacy of the mechanical oscillator; thus it is the aim of this study to examine the efficacy of the mechanical oscillator and to provide the data on acupressure for weight reduction, and more specifically abdominal fat reduction.
33 male (age 21-35; BMI > 23kg/m2) participants were recruited and randomly assigned to the control and treatment group. Participants in the treatment group used the oscillator for an hour a day for 28 days. They were required to record their daily food consumption and physical activity in a log sheet during the treatment period. All data were analyzed using SPSS version 14.0. MANOVA was used for the between-groups analysis and one-way repeated measures ANOVA was used for the within-group analysis.
There was no significant difference in the outcome variables between the two groups. However, there was a significant reduction in abdominal fat within the treatment group. However,it was found that some individuals reported reductions in abdominal fat though no significant overall results were found. In conclusion, the mechanical oscillator cannot be used to replace physical activity for weight loss or maintenance.450 18 - PublicationRestrictedEvaluation of a mental skills training programme : perceptions of youth female gymnasts(2004)Ng, Gim Huan MaeThe purpose of the present study is to evaluate a mental skills training programme by examining the perceptions of a group of female gymnasts on the cognitive development, the importance, and use of mental skills. In a preceding study, Gould, Petlichkoff, Hodge, and Simons (1990) examined elite wrestler's responses to psychological skills training (PST) programmes by using a quantitative approach to evaluate the degree to which the programmes changed their knowledge, perceived importance and use of mental skills. Though significant results were shown in their study that the PST programme was effective in changing the athletes' knowledge, perceived importance, and use of mental skills, what remains lacking is the knowledge on the athletes' perceptions of the processes of mental skills development, the reasons why they consider mental skills to be important or not important, and the rationale for any changes in the planned and actual use of the mental skills.
Through content analysis of the qualitative data gathered at the pre-programme, post-programme, and one-month follow-up interviews, this study seeks to gain insights from the gymnasts with regards to the cognitive development of mental skills in the MST programme, understand the reasons why they consider mental skills to be important or not important, and examine the reasons for any changes in the planned and actual use of the mental skills. In addition, to take up Weinberg and Williams' (2001) call for a well thought out intervention programme, a six-week mental skills training programme was designed and implemented following the guidelines recommended in the multiphasic approach by Boutcher and Rotella (1987).
Overall, the results show changes in the process of cognitive development of mental skills. Factors such as experience, goal orientation, and learning approaches are found to influence the process of mental skills development. The results also reveal reasons for the perceived importance of mental skills. Participants seem to hold high regards for mental skills for performance enhancement and to gain control over their behavioural and emotional responses. In addition, adherence-related issues such as situations for practice and barriers to use of mental skills were discussed. Responses from the interviews led to an important finding on how the gymnasts used mental skills in other aspects of their life.
With the study's insights into the perceptions of the gymnasts with regards to the cognitive development of mental skills, their reasons for the perceived level of importance of mental skills, and the rationale for their adherence level in the use of mental skills, it is hoped that the results would encourage more practitioners to evaluate psychological interventions from other perspectives rather than for the sole purpose of enhancing sport performance.189 15 - PublicationRestrictedExercise motivation in an all-boys school in Singapore : a self-determination theory perspective(2015)Lam, George Choon SengObesity is a rising global problem (World Health Organization, 2013) that is expected to worsen with data showing that governments around the world having to spend more on health-care costs that are related to obesity or overweight issues (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2013). Exercise has been shown to be an effective method in managing weight, promoting physical well-being (Boreham & Riddoch, 2001) and psychological health (Sallis & Patrick, 1994). Understanding the factors that lead to exercise motivation is a key research area that schools would be interested to look into as this would help the school leaders and Physical Education practitioners to implement effect measures to increase the declining physical activity levels of adolescent students as they grow into adulthood.
The purpose of this study is to investigate the exercise motivation of a sample of students in an-all boys Singaporean school using the Self-Determination Theory as a theoretical and conceptual framework. A mixed methods approach was adopted for this study. A total of 382 participants (199 Year One students and 183 Year Three students, Mage = 14.5 years, SD = 0.3) completed the Three Day Physical Activity Recall (3DPAR) Questionnaire. The 3DPAR data collected from this all-boys sample was used to compare against a similar sample collected from a co-educational sample (Lee & Trost, 2006) in Singapore. From the 3DPAR results, 24 participants (Mage = 14.5 years, SD = 0.4), from the highest and lowest activity groups, were selected respectively to do a focus group interviews for qualitative data collection and analysis.
The results show that adolescent boys are more physically active in an all-boys school setting and satisfying their need for competence, autonomy and relatedness can lead to exercise motivation. Conversely, not satisfying these three basic psychological needs can lead to a lack of motivation.
This study managed to add a rich data which allows other researchers to better understand the factors, which would have be otherwise hidden within the data from self-reporting instruments, that promote intrinsic motivation in exercise for adolescents. The three significant findings of this study are: (1) Adolescent boys are more physically active in an all-boys school setting as compared to boys in a coeducational setting, (2) Enjoyment, competence, autonomy on their choice of games to play during recess, opportunities to bond with family and friends, were possible reasons for the exercise motivation of individuals with high PA levels, (3) Low competence, presence of minor medical conditions, lack of autonomy in PE lessons, lack of time and having family that do not exercise regularly to be possible reasons for the lack of motivation of individuals with low PA. Future studies could look into research in different school settings or gender so that effective intervention measures could be devised by schools for their students.417 76