The multi-timescale, multi-modal and multi-perspectival aspects of classroom discourse analysis in science education
Classroom discourse is an indispensable process through which the teaching and learning of any discipline, including science, takes place. In classroom discourse studies, many researchers use a variety of approaches under the umbrella term of “discourse analysis” to understand the dynamic of interaction and sometimes how learning happens in the classroom. Discourse analysis is recognised and frequently discussed as a methodology in applied linguistics (Rex et al. 2010). Researchers in science education typically borrow several analytical tools from discourse analysis and apply them to study the teaching and learning process in the science classroom (broadly defined as a space of learning in and out of school). For many years, the adoption of methods from discourse analysis developed outside science education was not a major issue. However, in light of the increasing emphasis and contextualisation on the disciplinary nature of science, some unique features of science discourse become more evident: the first characteristic that is overwhelming in this issue is multi-modality. Science discourse in general, and science classroom discourse in particular, is multi-modal in the sense that it needs more than verbal language to make sense. Another feature which appears in several papers in this special issue is that science is related not only to its content but also to the epistemic process of creating scientific knowledge. Science is an inquiry-based enterprise, it values more questions than answers, and it has an empirical base. The language of science itself has some particular features, such as the use of nominalisations, which goes beyond technicality (Fang 2005). Accordingly, it is time to review the methods that were historically adopted from other disciplines and evaluate how they have evolved to take into consideration the unique multi-modal and empirical character of science. There has been little discussion thus far within the science education community on the overarching methodology of discourse analysis, such as its underpinning paradigm and the relative advantages and limitations of various approaches. This special issue dedicated to discourse analysis is therefore the first of its kind within science education. Compilations focusing on discourse analysis have appeared in applied linguistics and language education (e.g. Gee and Handford 2012; Zuengler and Mori 2002). What is different in this special issue is the attention to the conditions, settings and peculiarities of science classrooms. It is also written mainly by science education researchers who use discourse analysis to address issues that are more unique to science education. Through an open call, we initially received 59 abstracts for this special issue from 24 countries across 6 continents. We were encouraged by this overwhelming response, which affirms the central role analytical methods play in science classroom research. As our focus is on the methodology of discourse studies, we asked the authors to highlight the rationale, application, and affordances of their methods, rather than reporting the full results from their study. After an initial selection by the guest editors and double-blind peer review process by the reviewers of Research in Science Education, we are pleased to present 11 original articles and a commentary for this special issue. The 11 papers highlighted similar yet different interpretations and applications of discourse analysis in science classrooms. In this editorial, we offer our perspectives of discourse analysis distilled from the collective ideas in all the papers.
Breaking the silence: Understanding teachers’ use of silence in classrooms
Silence in classrooms is an undervalued and understudied phenomenon. There is limited research on how teachers behave and think during teachers’ silence in lessons. There are also methodological constraints due to the lack of teacher’s talk during silence. This study used eye-tracking technology to visualize the noticing patterns of two science teachers during silence lasting more than three seconds. Using video data recorded from cameras and eye trackers, we examined each silent event and interpreted teachers’ perceptions and interpretations with consideration of eye fixations, actions of students and teachers during the silence, and teachers’ actions immediately after they broke the silence. We further examined expert-novice differences in teachers’ use of silence. Four categories of teachers’ silence were identified: silence for (1) preparing the classroom for learning; (2) teaching, questioning, and facilitating learning; (3) reflecting and thinking, and (4) behavioural management. Expert-novice differences were identified, especially in the teachers’ use of silence for approaches to teaching, reflection, and behavioural management. The novel contribution of this paper lies in the characterization of silences as observed in actual classroom settings as well as the methodological innovation in using eye trackers and video to overcome the constraints of lack of talk data during silence.
Gender differences in high school students’ interest in STEM careers: A multi-group comparison based on structural equation model
Background Females are underrepresented in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) fields all over the world. To encourage more girls to choose STEM majors and careers, it is critical to increase their interest in STEM careers. Many studies have investigated the factors that influence females' entry into STEM fields, but few studies have explored the gender differences in the relationships between these factors. Therefore, based on the Social Cognitive Career Theory, this study explored the gender differences in the effects of environmental factors (school education, informal education, social support, and media) on high school students' interest in STEM careers through the mediating roles of STEM self-efficacy and STEM careers perceptions.
Results A questionnaire survey was conducted among 1240 high school students in Hunan Province, China, and the results of t-test, regression analysis, and structural equation model multi-group comparison showed that: Firstly, the scores of male students in all the dimensions except for STEM career perception were significantly higher than those of female students. Secondly, the environmental factor that had the greatest effect on male and female students' interest in STEM careers was different. Finally, there were gender differences in the mediating roles of STEM self-efficacy and STEM careers perceptions between environmental factors and interest in STEM careers.
Conclusions This study revealed the influence mechanisms and gender differences in male and female students' interest in STEM careers in the context of Chinese Confucian culture, and the conclusions are as follows: (1) Male students' interest in STEM careers was significantly higher than that of female students; (2) The environmental factors that had the greatest effect on male and female students' interest in STEM careers were social support and media, respectively; and (3) Environmental factors could affect male students' interest in STEM careers through the mediating roles of STEM self-efficacy and STEM career perception, while environmental factors could affect female students' interest in STEM careers through the mediating role of STEM self-efficacy. Finally, the mediating mechanisms of STEM self-efficacy and STEM career perception between environmental factors and interest in STEM careers, and the importance of STEM self-efficacy for female students were discussed.
Exploring students' perceptions of learning equilibrium concepts through making Bulan kites
This study reports students' perceptions of learning the physics concepts of equilibrium through making Bulan kites. The Bulan kite encompasses indigenous knowledge related to the teachings and ideas found in Islam. After a workshop where students (n = 109) made the Bulan kite under the tutelage of a local expert, students (n = 12) were interviewed to distil their thoughts of the learning experience and their understanding of the concepts. The interviews were transcribed and content analysis was carried out. The findings indicate that students were able to make connections between the ideas of equilibrium and the art of kite construction which is based on indigenous knowledge. The kite making process also presented students with opportunities to be more aware of the value of local indigenous knowledge and motivated them in physics learning. We also discussed how indigenous knowledge can be incorporated meaningfully into physics learning.
Developing an integrated STEM classroom observation protocol using the productive disciplinary engagement framework
STEM education and research has gained popularity internationally over the last decade. However, there is a lack in specifications in existing K-12 STEM classroom observation protocols of how features of an integrated STEM experience/lesson would lead to desired outcomes and how those outcomes should be measured. To bridge this gap, we propose the development of a new integrated STEM classroom observation protocol (iSTEM protocol). This article describes the ongoing development work of the iSTEM protocol, which features two creative attempts. Firstly, the productive disciplinary engagement framework is adapted to design a classroom observation protocol that provides a coherent frame of design principles to be met to achieve desired 3-dimensional pedagogical outcomes. Secondly, interdisciplinarity of student engagement was interpreted in terms of the extent to which students take a systematic and disciplinary-based approach to make and justify decisions during STEM problem-solving. The iSTEM protocol comprises 15 items (4-point scale) rated holistically for the extents to which evidence was found in the observed lesson for (1) the 3-dimensional pedagogical outcomes of productive interdisciplinary engagement (five items) and (2) problematising, resources, authority, and accountability design principles (10 items). The accompanying iSTEM profile visually represents and communicates the strengths and inadequacies in design principles, thus providing explanations for extents of students’ productive interdisciplinary engagement. The iSTEM protocol will contribute as a research tool for STEM education researchers and as a pedagogical guide for STEM classroom teachers to improve their design of STEM learning experiences.
Enhancing students' learning of the concept of equilibrium through a culturally responsive inquiry of the Bulan kite
This article presents an empirical study of the use of Indigenous knowledge of the Bulan kite to teach the concept of “equilibrium” among Muslim students (n = 109 students) in private Islamic schools (in the southern part of Thailand). The design of the culturally responsive teaching comprising three lessons was guided by the 5E model. The study took 7 months from creating three lesson plans and a pre- and post-test until it was implemented in the physics classroom. A pre- and a post-test with 40 multiple-choice items were used to assess students’ understanding of equilibrium. A hypothetical model of the construct was validated using a dichotomous Rasch model. To measure learning gains, we fixed the pre- and post-item difficulties and estimated the post-instruction person’s ability. The Welch t-test was used to compare the means of pre- and post-instruction person ability. The results indicated that the Rasch model fits the data well. The hypothetical model was confirmed. The successful students showed the person measures with a statistically significant increase (p < 0.01) at the end of the intervention (M2 = 1.061, SD2 = 0.64) compared to the person measures before the implementation (M1 = − 0.001, SD1 = 0.591). The implications for learning progression of students are discussed.
Theorizing STEM leadership: Agency, identity, and community
STEM education, when perceived as integrated learning that encompasses knowledge, skills and practices of Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics, points to a need to re-examine ways of classification of school subjects and learning. Consequently, dilemmas related to integrated STEM education arise. School leaders are faced with the task to organize teams to address issues such as the ownership of STEM, identity issues such as STEM teacher or teacher of STEM subjects, evaluation of STEM programs and resources to support STEM education. The unique characteristics of integrated disciplines demand leaders who understand the unique characteristics and demands of each discipline and to apply them to build a synergistic platform to magnify the similarities and harness the differences for learning. In this paper, we present an argument for STEM leadership to focus on building STEM teachers’ agency, identity and sense of belonging to a community. These three aspects are important for meaningful planning, enactment and sustainability of STEM programs since teachers’ beliefs, intentions, actions and empowerment are known to be instrumental in the success of many educational reforms.
Design thinking from multiple perspectives
Design thinking is interpreted and implemented in various ways as detailed by the five articles in this special issue. Besides offering a summary of the five articles, this editorial commentary advocates for the need to view design thinking more holistically by considering the larger system in which the solution resides and also giving thought to the end-point of design thinking cycles.