Rifkin-Graboi, Anne

Mastery motivation predicts achievement, but intricacies amongst pre-schoolers are unclear. In keeping with the Specificity Principle, school-age, and adolescent research demonstrates the importance of considering the setting conditions in which mastery motivation is observed. Here, Singaporean 4-year-olds’ (N = 63) mastery-motivation-related behaviour (MMRB) (e.g. signs of persistence, focus, and pleasure) in mathematical and non-mathematical activities were observed. Relations between numeracy and MMRB during a mathematical game (outcome relevant setting) were determined, controlling for MMRB in other activities (outcome irrelevant settings). Association between MMRB during the mathematical game and receptive language (outcome irrelevant setting) was also examined. Consistent with the Specificity Principle, MMRB during the mathematical game was (i) associated with numeracy, after controlling for MMRB in other activities and (ii) did not predict language. Enhancing preschoolers’ experiences, especially when implemented in contexts related to areas targeted for improvement, may benefit outcomes. These skills acquired in early life can become important predictors of future ability.

Why do our brains change so much in early life? Why do they continue to develop over time? What are the implications of prolonged neural plasticity for interventions, learning, and childhood well-being? Humans live among ever-changing circumstances and therefore require extensive neurocircuitry supporting abilities to learn, regulate, and respond to information throughout life. Nevertheless, biological plasticity is energetically costly, and so it may be advantageous for infants to take a “best guess” at the type of environment in which they will likely be raised. Will it be dangerous? Will it be filled with unpredictability and a lack of control? Or, will it be comprised of support, certainty, and access to resources? These are important questions: different skills are necessary to succeed in different types of environments. In this chapter, we will consider how brain development unfolds, especially in early life. We will ask, why, from a biological standpoint, early experience impacts developmental trajectories. Next, we will specifically consider effects of the caregiving environment upon neurodevelopment and related implications for individual differences at school age. Gaps in the knowledge base, especially with regard to how such relationships unfold outside of low-risk North American and European homes and school systems, will be highlighted. The reader will learn about a new collaborative Singaporean study, “BE POSITIVE,” that aims to address these gaps starting in children 4 months to 4 years. Finally, we will consider ways such research can be applied to shaping interventions and policies aimed at increasing educational success and well-being.

When our goals or plans change, we have to be able to flexibly switch to adapt to the current situation or demands. Cognitive flexibility is the mental process that allows us to alternate flexibly and align our behaviours accordingly. Cognitive flexibility emerges in early childhood, but little is known about the neural correlates supporting this ability early in life. In this study, five-year-olds performed the Dimension Change Card Sort (DCCS) task while we recorded their brain activity using scalp-recorded electroencephalography (EEG). As expected, children were slower to respond on trials requiring cognitive flexibility (i.e., post-switch trials). EEG recordings showed that a late occurring frontal negativity (LFN) was larger on post-switch trials than on pre-switch trials. An earlier occurring negativity, the N2, did not differ by switch demands, and was observed on both the pre- and post-switch trials. The findings from this study indicate that as in later stages of development the LFN may be an important neural marker underlying cognitive flexibility in early childhood.

Study Objectives Examine how different trajectories of reported sleep duration associate with early childhood cognition. Methods Caregiver-reported sleep duration data (n = 330) were collected using the Brief Infant Sleep Questionnaire at 3, 6, 9, 12, 18, and 24 months and Children’s Sleep Habits Questionnaire at 54 months. Multiple group-based day-, night-, and/or total sleep trajectories were derived—each differing in duration and variability. Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development-III (Bayley-III) and the Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test- 2 (KBIT-2) were used to assess cognition at 24 and 54 months, respectively. Results Compared to short variable night sleep trajectory, long consistent night sleep trajectory was associated with higher scores on Bayley-III (cognition and language), while moderate/long consistent night sleep trajectories were associated with higher KBIT-2 (verbal and composite) scores. Children with a long consistent total sleep trajectory had higher Bayley-III (cognition and expressive language) and KBIT-2 (verbal and composite) scores compared to children with a short variable total sleep trajectory. Moderate consistent total sleep trajectory was associated with higher Bayley-III language and KBIT-2 verbal scores relative to the short variable total trajectory. Children with a long variable day sleep had lower Bayley-III (cognition and fine motor) and KBIT-2 (verbal and composite) scores compared to children with a short consistent day sleep trajectory. Conclusions Longer and more consistent night- and total sleep trajectories, and a short day sleep trajectory in early childhood were associated with better cognition at 2 and 4.5 years.

STUDY OBJECTIVES:Spatial working memory (SWM) capacity sub-serves complex cognitive functions, yet it is unclear whether individual diurnal preferences and time-of-day influence SWM in preschool children. The main and interaction effects of chronotype and time-of-day on SWM and SWM differences in preschoolers with different chronotypes within each time-of-day group will be examined.
METHODS:We studied a subset of typically-developing 4.5-year-olds taking part in a birth cohort study (n = 359). The Children’s Chronotype Questionnaire (CCTQ) categorized children into morning-, intermediate-, and evening-types. Using a computerized neuropsychological test CANTAB (Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery), SWM was determined from the total number of between-search errors (i.e., BS-total errors) and Strategy scores. Higher BS-total errors or lower Strategy scores indicated worse SWM. Time-of-day was categorized into late morning (10:00 am to 11:59 am), afternoon (12:00 pm to 3:59 pm), and late afternoon (4:00 pm to 6:30 pm). In a subsample (n = 199), caregiver-reported chronotype was validated using actigraphy-measured sleep mid-point.
RESULTS:After controlling for ethnicity, no significant main and interaction effects of chronotype and time-of-day on BS-total errors and Strategy scores were seen (all P > .05). However, evening-types outperformed morning-types (i.e., lower mean BS-total errors) in the late afternoon (P = .013), but not in the late morning and afternoon (all P > .05). Actigraphy data in the subsample confirmed that evening-types had later sleep mid-points during weekdays and weekends (P < .001).
CONCLUSIONS:Since evening-type preschoolers had better SWM in the late afternoon compared to morning-type preschoolers, this gives insights into optimal learning opportunities in early childhood education.

Disorganized attachment is a risk for mental health problems, with increasing work focused on understanding biological mechanisms. Examining late childhood brain morphology may be informative – this stage coincides with the onset of many mental health problems. Past late childhood research reveals promising candidates, including frontal lobe cortical thickness and hippocampal volume. However, work has been limited to Western samples and has not investigated mediation or moderation by brain morphology. Furthermore, past cortical thickness research included only 33 participants. The current study utilized data from 166 children from the GUSTO Asian cohort, who participated in strange situations at 18 months and MRI brain imaging at 10.5 years, with 124 administered the Child Behaviour Checklist at 10.5 years. Results demonstrated disorganization liked to internalizing problems, but no mediation or moderation by brain morphology. The association to internalizing (but not externalizing) problems is discussed with reference to the comparatively higher prevalence of internalizing problems in Singapore.

Background Distinguishing whether and how pre-existing characteristics impact maternal responses to adversity is difficult: Does prior well-being decrease the likelihood of encountering stressful experiences? Does it protect against adversity’s negative effects? We examine whether the interaction between relatively uniformly experienced adversity (due to COVID-19 experience) and individual variation in pre-existing (i.e., pre-pandemic onset) distress predicted mothers’ pandemic levels of distress and insensitive caregiving within a country reporting low COVID-19 death rates, and strict nationwide regulations. Method Fifty-one Singaporean mothers and their preschool-aged children provided data across two waves. Pre- pandemic onset maternal distress (i.e., psychological distress, anxiety, and parenting stress) was captured via self-reports and maternal sensitivity was coded from videos. Measures were repeated after the pandemic’s onset along with questionnaires concerning perceived COVID-19 adversity (e.g., COVID-19’s impact upon stress caring for children, housework, job demands, etc.) and pandemic-related objective experiences (e.g., income, COVID-19 diagnoses, etc.). Regression analyses (SPSS v28) considered pre-pandemic onset maternal distress, COVID-19 stress, and their interaction upon post-pandemic onset maternal distress. Models were re-run with appropriate covariates (e.g., objective experience) when significant findings were observed. To rule out alternative models, follow up analyses (PROCESS Model) considered whether COVID-19 stress mediated pre- and post-pandemic onset associations. Models involving maternal sensitivity followed a similar data analytic plan. Results Pre-pandemic maternal distress moderated the association between COVID-19 perceived stress and pandemic levels of maternal distress (β = 0.22, p < 0.01) but not pandemic assessed maternal sensitivity. Perceived COVID-19 stress significantly contributed to post-pandemic onset maternal distress for mothers with pre-pandemic onset distress scores above (β = 0.30, p = 0.05), but not below (β = 0.25, p = 0.24), the median. Objective COVID-19 adversity did not account for findings. Post-hoc analyses did not suggest mediation via COVID-19 stress from pre-pandemic to pandemic maternal distress. Conclusions Pre-existing risk may interact with subsequent perceptions of adversity to impact well-being. In combination with existing research, this small study suggests prevention programs should focus upon managing concurrent mental health and may highlight the importance of enhanced screening and proactive coping programs for people entering high stress fields and/or phases of life.