Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.)

Motivation lies in the crux of understanding students’ cognitions, affect, and behaviors in the academic setting. In three distinct but related studies, three key motivational constructs are examined in this dissertation: self-attributed motives, achievement goals, and goal complexes. Study 1 focuses on motives which operate by energizing behaviors towards anticipatory goal objects (McClelland, 1987). The conceptualization of self-attributed motives is underdeveloped in the literature. Thus, Study 1 seeks to conceptualize and operationalize six self-attributed motives, namely hope of success, fear of failure, hope of affiliation, fear of rejection, hope of power, and fear of loss of power. A total of 255 undergraduate students from the Philippines and 220 undergraduate students from Singapore participated in this study to develop and validate a new measure named the Self-Attributed Motive Scale (SAMS). Results showed that the SAMS displayed structural validity and measurement invariance across the two samples. Between-construct validity of the SAMS was established from the relationships between each self-attributed motive and its related outcomes.

Study 2 is centered around achievement goals. While motives energize behaviors, achievement goals are posited to direct competence-based thoughts, affect, and behaviors (Elliot, 2006). The 3 × 2 Achievement Goal Questionnaire (AGQ; Elliot, Murayama, & Pekrun, 2011) represents a recent development in the literature by focusing the definition of achievement goals on standards of competence. As otherapproach goals from the 3 × 2 AGQ were used to develop goal complex items in Study 3, Study 2 seeks to validate the 3 × 2 AGQ. A total of 320 undergraduate students from the Philippines and 243 undergraduate students from Singapore participated in this study. Structural validity and measurement invariance of the 3 × 2 AGQ were established across the two samples. Furthermore, relationships between the achievement goals in the 3 × 2 AGQ and their antecedents and outcomes also established between construct validity of the measure.

Study 3 builds on Studies 1 and 2 by examining goal complexes. Herein, a goal complex is conceptualized as an integrated construct that unifies the aim of competence strivings, as represented in achievement goals defined as standards, with its underlying reasons (Elliot, 2006). Specifically, Study 3 operationalizes a goal complex in the form of a one-to-one pairing between one other-approach goal item from the 3 × 2 AGQ with items from the SAMS, as validated in Study 1, one at a time. Thus, Study 3 seeks to develop a measure of the resultant goal complexes – hope of success/other-approach, fear of failure/other-approach, hope of affiliation/other-approach, fear of rejection/otherapproach, hope of power/other-approach, and fear of loss of power/other-approach – and examine their relationships with outcomes. A total of 370 undergraduate students from the Philippines and 235 undergraduate students from Singapore participated in this study. Structural validity and measurement invariance were established for the new measure, the Goal Complex Scale (GCS), across the two samples. The goal complexes were also found to have differential relationships with the outcomes examined. Taken together, the conceptual, methodological, and applied contributions that arise from Studies 1, 2, and 3 are discussed.

This thesis aimed to investigate the moderating effects of perceived competence in the social-cognitive model of achievement goals within sports. Specifically, moderating effects of perceived competence were investigated between implicit theories of ability, achievement goals, and achievement-relevant sporting outcomes. Over the years, the achievement goal theory evolved from a dichotomous, to a trichotomous, to a 2 x 2, and then to a 3 x 2 construct. Before the moderating role of perceived competence could be investigated, the various achievement goal measures need to be examined to determine which was most compatible with the social-cognitive model. Study one recruited 475 university athletes from a variety of sports and compared the psychometric properties of the 2 x 2 and 3 x 2 achievement goals and found that both achieved satisfactorily fit indices compared to all other alternative models. As a number of inconsistent relationships were found between the 3 x 2 achievement goal measure and the constructs of the social-cognitive model, the 2 x 2 achievement goal measure was concluded to be more coherent with the social-cognitive model and was utilised for the main investigation.

Study two went on to validate the psychometric properties of the 2 x 2 Achievement Goal in Sport Questionnaire (AGS-Q). The factor structure was examined and found to be invariant across both genders and type of sports (individual versus team sports) through multi-group analysis. The moderating effects of perceived competence between implicit theories, achievement goals, and intrinsic motivation were also investigated for the 908 junior college and university athletes from a variety of sports via Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) analysis. Perceived competence was found to moderate the relationship between entity theory and performance-avoidance goals.

Finally, study three further investigated the moderating effects of perceived competence among 110 badminton athletes. They completed the measurements for implicit theories, perceived competence, 2 x 2 achievement goals and outcomes (intrinsic motivation, flow, pressure, and negative thinking) after a badminton match which they had high perceived competence in and again after a low perceived competence match (in any order). Hierarchical multiple regression analyses revealed 12 moderating effects of perceived competence between all the variables investigated. No antecedent relations between perceived competence and achievement goals were found.

Contrary to theoretical postulations, perceived competence was found to be a moderator among all the key constructs of the social-cognitive model of achievement goals in sport especially for the game of badminton, and not found to be an antecedent of achievement goals. This could explain for the inconsistent findings on the relations among the key constructs particularly between achievement goals and outcomes. Maladaptive goals do not necessarily lead to negative outcomes when an athlete possesses high perceived competence. Athletes can enhance their positive outcomes (intrinsic motivation and flow) and lower their negative outcomes (pressure and negative thinking) by enhancing their perceived competence especially when changing their implicit theories and achievement goals is unfruitful.