Master of Arts (Applied Psychology)

This study examines children's experiences at the Lakeside Before and After School Care (BASC) Programme. Regulatable features such as staff-child ratio, total enrolment and staff education were assessed via the head's report. Observers recorded positive/neutral and negative staff-child interactions, and rated activities in terms of flexibility and age-appropriateness. There was a positive association between staff-child ratio and staff education and staff-child interactions. Observers reported more frequent positive/neutral than negative interactions between staff and children. Lower primary children (Primary One to Three) were reported to have more frequent positive/neutral interactions than upper primary children (Primary Four to Six). Observers rated programmes as flexible and age-appropriate. These regulatable and observed features were examined in relation to children's (N=129) and parents' (N=96) perceptions of programme psychosocial climate. Children's reports of overall climate, emotional support from staff and privacy/autonomy were positively related to programme features. Children from the upper primary reported more positive programme climate than children from the lower primary. The wide range of activities offered and low staff-child ratio appeared to have contributed to positive programme climate. Parents' reports of programme climate were also related to children's reports. Parents of lower primary children reported more positive programme climate than parents of upper primary children. This study suggests that quality programme is related to regulatable and programme features.

The present study investigated relationships between individuals' irrational beliefs and their levels of self-esteem and public and private self-consciousness. Four hypotheses were proposed. Firstly, there is a negative relationship between the number of irrational beliefs on an individual's own level of self-esteem. Secondly, there is a negative relationship between self-esteem and public and private self-consciousness. Thirdly, there is a positive relationship between irrational beliefs and public and private self-consciousness. The fourth and last hypothesis is that there are no gender differences in self esteem, irrational beliefs and public and private self-consciousness.

The measures used were; (a) the revised Self-conscious scale developed by Schiever and Carver(1985); (b) the emotional stability and general self sub-scales of the Self Description Questionnaire III developed by Marsh (1990); and (c) the Irrational Beliefs Test developed by Jones (1968). A total of 129 adults participated in the study by completing a questionnaire comprising the paper-and-pencil measures.

Reliability coefficients obtained of the measures used and the correlation coefficients found among the variables were reported. Results from a one-way analysis of variance to ascertain gender differences were also described. Analysis performed indicated support for hypotheses (1) and (4) proposed in the study. There were no gender differences, and there was a negative relationship between irrational beliefs and self-esteem. for hypothesis (2) and (3), only partial support were obtained for each. Self-esteem was found to be negatively related with public self-consciousness in this study. Private self-consciousness did not seem to be significantly related with general self-esteem in individuals. On the other hand it seemed to have a significantly negative relationship with emotional stability self-esteem. Irrational beliefs also appeared to have a significant relationship with public self consciousness. Again private self-consciousness did not seem to have a significant negative with irrational beliefs. This was similar to its relationship with general self-esteem.

Implications for personality theory were deduced from the above findings. As regards to implications for clinical practice, therapeutic interventions that address the cognitive affective and behavioral aspects of low self-esteem are suggested to be effective treatments. Replication of the study with use of other measures of dysfunctional beliefs and a larger sample size to allow more sophisticated statistical procedures such as path analysis are needed to further validate the findings in this study.

A healthy sense of self-esteem and good peer relations are among the few elements that are important for one to reach his/her full potential. While a number of theorists have suggested that individuals with disabilities have a lower sense of self-worth compared to their able-bodied counterparts, some other empirical findings have found no significant difference between the self-esteem of both groups. In the light of this, and the lack of such studies in Singapore, this study aims to ascertain the self-esteem and peer relations of adolescents with cerebral palsy (CP) in Singapore by comparing this with their able-bodied counterparts in a mainstream secondary school.

The Self-Esteem Checklist (SEC) and the Index of Peer Relations (IPR) were administered to adolescents with CP in a special school and able-bodied adolescents in a mainstream secondary school and the responses of 30 from each group were selected for data analysis based on background information that matched. This information include the variables of age, family structure, parents' educational level and family's social-economic status. The mean scores on the SEC and IPR of both groups were compared using a one-way analysis of variance. The findings indicate that adolescents with CP had a significantly higher self-esteem (p < 0.025) than their able-bodied counterparts, and that there were no significant differences between the peer relations of both groups. When the relationship between the variables of self-esteem and peer relations were examined, the results showed a positive and significant correlation between them. The main findings of the study were discussed in terms of the (a) assumptions of earlier theorists, (b) the similarity principle, (c) environmental influences and (d) the positive reactions of others. One of the most important implications of this finding is that a greater public awareness of how these individuals with CP perceive their self-worth and relations with their peers would help society better relate to these individuals, and consequently, help individuals with disabilities to maximise their potential and integrate more successfully into society.

A study was carried out to investigate the social adjustment of adolescent males. Two samples of boys were selected, one from a residential home and one from a secondary school. In all, data of 130 subjects were used, of which 77 were male adolescents living in the residential home and 53 were male adolescents studying in the secondary school. A thirty-five item survey questionnaire was formulated as the instrument for data collection. Five scales in the questionnaire was used to measure social adjustment based on the five research questions pertaining to the perception of teacher support, the perception of peer support, the sense of belonging to school, the attitude towards education, and the perception of family bonding.

Results of mean differences showed that adolescents in residential care (RC) scored the lowest on all scales of social adjustment compared to non-residential care (NRC) adolescents. T-test results showed significant differences (p<.05) only for the scale on the sense of belonging towards school for RC/NRC comparison in the 13 to 16 years age range. However, some individual items in the scales associated with sense of belonging to school, perception of peer support, and perception of family bonding had significant ttest results (p<.05). It was found that RC adolescents had a weaker sense of belonging to school and a less positive perception of peer support compared to NRC adolescents. It was concluded that RC adolescents were less socially adjusted than NRC adolescents in the area of school experience and peer involvement.

This research study was aimed at validating the use of the Global Personality Inventory (GPI) in the Singapore context. The GPI was based on the Five Factor model of personality and was developed to measure personality attributes and competencies underlying job performance. It was designed for use in recruitment, succession management and people development in organizational settings across cultural barriers.

A stratified sample of 30 individuals at the officer and managerial levels with various educational levels and working in the public and private sector in Singapore was administered the Global Personality Inventory (GPI) and Neuroticism Extraversion Openness Personality Inventory - Revised (NEO PI-R) over a period of 2 months.

The validity of the GPI scales was investigated by conducting construct validation analyses. The validity of the instrument was confirmed by the high internal consistency of the scales; high correlation between similar GPI and NEO PI-R scales; high correlation between scales within each GPI Performance factor; high correlations between related GPI scales under different Performance factors, and differences in mean scale scores between groups varying in educational level, working in public versus private sector as well as salary range and number of years of working experience.

The results showed, firstly, that most of the GPI scales had high internal consistencies and were highly correlated with similar scales from the NEO PI-R. However, a few scales such as the Work Focus, Openness and Risk-taking scales were quite general and seemed to cover a wide array of different constructs. Secondly, there were also highly significant inter-correlations between GPI scales grouped according to the performance factor. Thirdly, there were highly significant correlations between GPI scales that were based on the same underlying attribute, were causally or indirectly related as well as logically incompatible. Fourthly, GPI scales grouped according to the 'Big Five' factors correlated highly with corresponding domain and facet scales of the NEO PI-R. This was, however, not the case for the GPI and NEO PI-R Extroversion and Openness factors and scales. Fifthly, groups of individuals differing in educational levels and salary ranges showed significant differences on how they scored on the scales.

In general, the study validated the constructs used in the GPI to some extent. More comprehensive and sophisticated research is required to determine the content, concurrent and predictive validity of the instrument in Singapore.

This study has attempted to clarify how parents of young children with special needs in Singapore perceive their disabilities and how stressed they feel as a result. VABS is employed for rating the functional levels of children with disabilities in tandem with QRS-F which is used for rating parental stress. The relationships between child characteristics, socio-ecological characteristics, and social support network on parental stress are examined.

The findings show that parents with younger children below six years old tend to over/under estimate their child's functional levels. However, they adjust their perceptions over time. Parents of children with disabilities experience more stress than do parents of children without disabilities. The severity of the child's disability has an impact on the experience of parents but the differences experienced stress among the parents of the children with different disabilities are not statistically significant. Child and socio-ecological characteristics interact in the production of parental stress. Variables studied would need to be considered in a multivariate context to fully appreciate the nature of parental stress in families of children with disabilities. Singaporean parents of children with disabilities receive support mainly from spouse, school parents and siblings, friends and doctors. The spouse is found to be the most supportive resource. Finally, maternal stress is found to be related to the degree of social support mothers of children with disabilities experience: the greater the degree of support, the lower their stress.

The limitations of this study are addressed in order to make realistic interpretations of the findings, and, recommendations for future studies, in improving social support services for parents of children with disabilities in Singapore are proposed.

The primary objective of this study was to investigate if there was any change in the self-concept of adolescents with the occurrence of a divorce in the family.

The adolescents were four students from the same school. The school is a co-educational secondary school. The students were all currently undergoing counselling with the author to help them cope with the divorce and the effects arising from the divorce. Three of the subjects were girls, with only one boy. Out of these four subjects, only the 15-year-old girl and the 17-year-old boy have been referred by the teachers to see the school counsellor. These two adolescents have been seen to exhibit certain unusual behaviours, which were not part of their usual interaction. The two adolescents concerned had actually exhibited defiant behaviours towards authority in the school. Upon taking action, the teachers discovered that these two adolescents were undergoing a divorce in the family and had them promptly referred to the author.

Using Harter's Self-perception Profile for Adolescents (1988), the author used two questionnaires constructed and revised by Harter (1988). This was administered to the sample. Ratings were obtained from the two questionnaires to study the four individuals. The two questionnaires were: a 45-item "What I am like" questionnaire and a 16-item "How important are each of these to you?" questionnaire.

The 45-item questionnaire measured the subjects' perceived Competence Ratings of the subscales, while the 16-item questionnaire measured the subjects' importance Ratings of the same subscales.

The 9 subscales were Scholastic Competence, Social Acceptance, Athletic Competence, Physical Appearance, Job Competence, Romantic Appeal, Behavioural Conduct, Close Friendships and Global Self-worth.

A comparison was done between the Competence Rating and the Importance Ratings of each subject, in their Personal Profiles.

A face-to-face interview was also conducted to verify any effects of the divorce on their academic functioning.

The results showed that the divorce did not have an adverse effect on their academic functioning. Rather the parental strife before and or after the divorce posed a greater effect on their academic functioning. The Personal Profiles indicated that Close Friendship was rated as high in importance by all the subjects, but low in competence by three of the subjects. The need for intimacy seemed to conflict with their academic functioning. Perhaps, the relationship between Close Friendship and Scholastic Competence could be studied further.

The experiment presented in this dissertation was designed to investigate the effect of heightened interest and involvement on the learning process of a group of Primary six EM3 students in a government school in Singapore. Two teaching approaches were used in the delivery of lessons - the traditional teacher-centered, chalk-and-talk approach and the experimental approach. The latter was designed to stimulate interest and student involvement in the learning process. which comprised of groups activities. The results confirmed that the EM3 students learned better when their interests were stimulated and when involvement in the learning process was allowed for through group activities. The findings important implications not only for classroom teachers, but also policymakers, school administrators, curriculum specialist and textbook writers.

This study aimed to understand the ecstasy and heroin abusers in the SAF in terms of six factors, namely, demographic profile, family background, social factors, addiction history, abstention history and social support network. A questionnaire was developed to explore these factors. Data collection was based on per-sonal interviews with 31 heroin abusers and 32 ecstasy abusers.

The study showed that the SAF drug abusers would likely to be single, left school early, and living with their parents in a four or three-room HDB fiat. Compared to ecstasy abusers, heroin abusers would likely to be aged 21, from one of the three main ethnic groups. He would probably had abstained from drugs for less than a year and had a drug conviction in the SAF. The ecstasy abuser woultl likely to be a Chinese, aged 20, abstained from drugs for more than a year, and had no drug conviction.

In terms of social factors, both groups were likely to report similar day leisure activities like watching moviesPNNCDs, playing sports and visiting night entertainment spots. Heroin abusers would more likely to participate in soccer whereas ecstasy abusers would more likely to shop in the day and hang around with friends at night.

In terms of addiction history, it appeared that heroin abusers were heavier smokers. Both groups were likely to be introduced to drugs by friends and began using drugs at the age of 17 out of curiosity or for fun. Ecstasy abusers were more lilqely to use dnrgs with friends at entertainment spots. The heroin abusers, in contrast, had more drug friends within their peer group.

Regarding abstention history, both groups were likely to report that their drug abstention attempts were mainly for their own sake. Besides, they were likely to report that their present drug abstention was due to family and work prospects. However, ecstasy abusers were more likely to have fewer drug abstention attempts and were more likely to utilise the drug confession scheme.

In terms of social support, heroin abusers appeared to have a slightly larger overall support network size as compared to ecstasy abusers but the number of support providers for each type of support were very similar. Both groups seemed to have a larger support network for financial support, followed by advice, material and emotional support. Most respondents reported that their primary support providers were females. Also, these primary support providers, except for work support, were likely to be family members. Mothers were found to be the most popular support providers, followed by friends and girlfriends.

Certainly, the above profile did not represent all the drug abusers in the SAF but serves to highlight some variations in the six factors. However, there were more substantial similarities than differences. Finally, .the implications of the study as well as recommendations for rehabilitation programme and future research were discussed.

This study presents data on the ways a sample of Gan Eng Seng School pupils choose to cope with their problems and the effectiveness of the school support system in meeting the needs of the pupils. A sample of 151 pupils from Secondary One and Three, Express and Normal (Academic) streams completed the Adolescent Coping Scale (ACS: Frydenberg and Lewis, 1993) which yields data on eighteen potential coping scales. Forty pupils - five girls and five boys from each stream and each level - were picked on a random basis for an in-depth interview that comprised a series of questions on three areas of concern - family, school and peers. The association between coping and styles and gender, academic streams and age were studied. The school support system - the Pupil Welfare Department and its programmes - were also assessed to evaluate its effectiveness and the pupils' perception of it as a possible source of support in meeting their coping needs.

The primary objective of this study was to explore the therapeutic factors at work in group counselling. In particular, the current study investigated which of twelve therapeutic factors (Yalom, 1985) were perceived to be most important to the group members. These factors include altruism, group cohesiveness, universality, interpersonal input, interpersonal output, guidance, catharsis, identification, family re-enactment, self-understanding, instillation of hope and existential factors.

The group consisted of seven 17-year-old Vietnamese scholars from an all-girls mission school in Singapore. They were referred for group counselling by the school principal to the author who was the school counsellor. The main concern was their adjustment to school and life in Singapore, as well as their ability to 'connect' with one another and with their peers. A seven-session group work programme was designed and carried out to help the girls increase self- esteem and improve relationship skills.

To measure the perceived importance of the twelve therapeutic factors, the 60-item Therapeutic Factors Scale (adapted from Yalom, 1985) was administered two weeks after the close of the group work programme. 45-minute interviews were also carried out with each of the group members to explore the reasons behind their patterns of endorsement. From the ratings, the twelve therapeutic factors were ranked according to perceived importance. It was found that 'group cohesiveness', 'intel-persor-;a1 learning (input)' and 'self- understanding' were the most highly endorsed factors. Compared to Yalom's hierarchy (1985), 'catharsis' was found to be ranked lower in this study, while 'altruism' was found to be ranked higher. From the interview data, it was found that the unique characteristics of the population - in particular, culture - exerted a significant influence on the endorsement of therapeutic factors.

To assess if connectedness was enhanced as a result of group counselling, two instruments were used. The 70-item Connectedness Questionnaire (a combination of three separate tests by Lee & Robbins, 1995; Rude & Burnham, 1995; Singelis, 1984) explored a stable and global sense of connectedness, while the self-constructed 25- item Group Work Questionnaire assessed the specific group work experience and a more temporary form of belongingness. Both questionnaires were administered before and afier the group process for comparison purposes. The post-test scores for the Group Work Questionnaire were found to be significzntly higher than the pre-test scores. However, as expected, no significant difference in the group means was found for the global sense of connectedness. Other significant findings are also presented and discussed in this study.

A series of correlational tests were also carried out to explore the relationship between the endorsement of therapeutic factors and connectedness. It was found that, in this group, the girls' sense of connectedness did not significantly affect how they endorsed therapeutic factors. Only one significant relationship was found - between 'altruism' and 'neediness'. To explore if the high endorsement of certain therapeutic factors was related to the high endorsement of other factors, correlational tests were carried out. The significant relationships found are presented and implications of these findings are hrther discussed.

The current study sought merely to identt'fy a cluster of salient therapeutic factors for this particular sample. Future research could systematically investigate the reasons behind this pattern of endorsement. Also, hture research could study the effectiveness of individual counselling and larger psychoeducational groups as alternative forms of intervention to enhance connectedness. Longitudinal studies would also provide more information about the influence of stages of group development on the endorsement of therapeutic factors.

This research examines counsellees' perceptions of the nature of their therapeutic alliance with traditional healers . It also explores the similarities and differences of the nature of alliance as compared with the counsellees' formal relationship with their counsellors. This research which involves individuals who have engaged the services of counsellors and traditional healers explores the therapeutic relationship in terms of the three dimensions of alliance namely; goal, task and bond.

Findings indicate that the element spirituality is a crucial aspect in the counsellee-traditional healer relationship, but this element is lacking in the formal counselling context. The aspect of spirituality is one that counsellees appreciate as helpful in enhancing their strength towards problem resolution.

It is also found that perception of the nature of both relationships largely reflects the worldviews in which the individuals involved operate within. The strength of the therapeutic relationship is closely linked to the similarities in worldviews. This suggests the importance in finding a cultural match if any relationship is to be effective.

This study investigated the presence of internalised shame among men who had used abusive behaviours towards their female partners; the impact of aspects of shaming in family of origin on later adult use of abusive behaviours towards one's spouse; childhood experiences of abuse and history of spousal abuse in one's family of origin on later development of internalised shame, and alcohol use and internalised shame.

The study comprised thirty-two men divided into two ethnicity-matched groups of those who used abusive behaviours towards their female partners (n=16) and those who did not (n=16). The findings indicated a significantly higher level of internalised shame (p<.01) and a significantly higher level of aspects of shaming in family of origin (p<.01) among those who used abusive behaviours. Other significant findings include higher levels of internalised shame among men who reported childhood experiences of abuse (p<.05), and higher level of aspects of shaming among men who reported childhood experiences of abuse (p<.05). Non-significant findings were noted between internalised shame and parental abuse in family of origin (p>.05), and alcohol use and internalised shame (p>.05).

The purpose of this study is first, to investigate whether a relationship exists between self-esteem in particular academic subjects and academic achievement in the matching areas. Second, it examines the various nonacademic self-esteem dimensions and academic achievement of pupils with substantial learning difficulties (EM3) and pupils with less learning difficulties (EM2). Third, to investigate whether the self-esteem of pupils with substantial learning difficulties (EM3) and pupils with less learning difficulties (EM2). Third, to investigate whether the self-esteem of pupils with substantial learning difficulties (EM3) differs significantly from pupils with less learning difficulties (EM2). Finally, it tests whether gender differences exist in the self-esteem dimensions and academic achievement of both groups of pupils.

The sample for this study was drawn from a class of 29 EM3 pupils (boys = 12, girls = 17) and a class of 39 EM2 pupils (boys = 20, girls = 19) of an average primary school in the northern part of Singapore.

In this study, self-esteem dimensions were measured by the Self-Esteem Questionnaire (SEQ), adapted from the Self Description Questionnaire I (SDQI) which was developed by Herbert W. Marsh with high scores indicating high self-esteem. The SEQ had 6 subscales and a total of 48 items. The academic achievement of the sample was measured by their English and Mathematics school end-of-year examinations.

The data collected in the main study were analysed using the following statistical procedures : means and standard deviation, Pearson product moment correlation, t-test and One-Way Analysis of Variance.

The major findings are : (a) Academic achievement scores are correlated more highly with matching academic self-esteem than with nonmatching academic self-esteem for both EM3 and EM2 pupils. (b) Significant positive correlation between English and Mathematics achievement and a negative correlation between English and Mathematics self-esteem are observed among pupils with substantial learning difficulties (EM3). (c) No significant relationship between nonacademic self-esteem dimensions and academic self-esteem exists for the EM3 pupils. (d) No between groups differences were observed in academic self-esteem and academic achievement except for Mathematics self-esteem favouring the EM3 pupils. (e) English and Mathematics achievement scores are positively correlated for the EM3 pupils but uncorrelated for EM2 pupils. (f) Gender differences are found only within the EM3 pupils in physical abilities in favour of boys and within the EM2 pupils in Mathematics achievement in favour of boys too.

The significance and educational implications of these findings are that teachers, parents, counsellors and educational psychologists should enhance the subject-specific self-esteem of the pupils with learning difficulties through creative and varied teaching strategies. Of particular importance, is the enhancement of the English self-esteem and English achievement of these groups of pupils.

This study examined the reading difficulties of Primary One pupils in a neighbourhood school in Singapore. Only one Primary class (N=37) in a neighbourhood school was used because the author was only given access to that class.

The number of subjects sampled was only twelve because the study involved time-consuming testing procedures and in-depth observations of the subjects as case studies. The school-based English Language tests scores served as the basis for the selection of the subjects. Six of the subjects were top scorers in the school-based English Language tests in the sampled class and they are referred to as the High-Ability Group. The other six subjects scored lowest in the English Language tests and they are referred to as the Low-Ability Group.
One of the instruments used is Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices, a standardised non-verbal intelligence test. It was chosen to assess the cognitive ability of the subjects because it has less language or cultural bias. Two of the instruments used, namely the Reading Test and the Background Questionnaire, were developed by the author. The Reading Test was used to assess the reading ability of the subjects on various aspects of the English Language namely knowledge in the alphabets, aural language, pronouns, sight words, prepositions, singular-plural nouns, vocabulary, phonology, concord, verbs-to-be and verbs-to-have, oral reading and comprehension. The Background information Questionnaire was used to gather background information of the subjects through face-to-face interview with the subjects and their parents.

The assessment results of these instruments were than analysed by comparing them with the subjects' school academic scores for English Language, Mathematics and Mother Tongue Languages. The results of the study revealed that all the pupils in the Low-Ability and High-Ability Groups do not seem to have any major hearing or speech impairment. The pupils in the Low-Ability Group appear to be more heterogeneous in cognitive and reading abilities than the pupils in the High-Ability Group. The study shows that the reading difficulties of the Primary One pupils are mainly in the lack of knowledge in pronouns, sight words, prepositions, singular-plural nouns, phonological awareness, concord, verbs-to-be and verbs-to-have, oral reading and comprehension.

The study recommends that further validation of the content of the Reading Test be carry out so as to refine the instrument. Furthermore, the result might not be generalised because of the small sample size in the study. As such, additional research using a larger, randomised sample is recommended.

This study examines gifted students' perceptions and attitudes towards the "gifted" label and its effects on their social relationships. A questionnaire was administered to 97 gifted 14 year old students in three secondary schools. Findings suggest that more male gifted students accept the label "gifted" compared to female gifted students. The culture of school where the gifted students are housed appears to be a factor in influencing the perceptions of the gifted adolescents. The students reported personal and academic advantages but pronounced social disadvantages of the "gifted" label. Some of the disadvantages include high expectations from parents and teachers and being discriminated by peers in the mainstream. Results of the case studies parallel these findings.

The help-seeking behaviour of 325 adolescents in a Singapore school was examined as a function of students' personal characteristics and their perceptions of their environment, and their tendencies to use different help- seeking strategies for academic problems. Self-report questionnaires were used.

The relationships of help-seeking behaviour with the following variables were investigated: (a) demographic variables of age, grade level, academic course, academic achievement and gender; (b) academic and social self-concepts; performance attribution and academic motivation; (c) students' perceptions of teacher feedback and of competitiveness in the environment. The effect of the demographic variables on the use of help-seeking or help-avoidance strategies were also studied.Findings supported previous research on academic help seeking that in most cases, those who are in need of help are the least likely to seek it. Students who reported a higher likelihood of seeking help on encountering academic problems were more academically able, were academically motivated and had higher academic self-concepts. They also reported a higher tendency to seek help from both formal and informal sources, as well as a higher tendency to ask questions in class and to use instrumental activities in solving academic problems. On the other hand, students who had lower academic achievement scores reported a higher tendency to lower their aspirations and to give up on their subjects. No gender differences were found.

The study suggests further research to achieve a better understanding of the adolescent's disposition towards seeking help and of strategies that a teacher could employ to engage all students in the classroom.

This is a research about underachievement in one government school. The government school is a neighbourhood school with a fairly small enrolment, comprising about 80 to 100 students per level. The students are classified into three streams : express, normal academic and normal technical. They are generally of average and below average ability. Most of the students were drawn from the surrounding vicinity. There is the Housing Board Development (HDB) housing estate on the one hand and semi-detached houses, terrace houses and condominiums on the other.

The purpose of the research is to investigate selected reasons to explain the underachievement of some of the students. A group of achievers was used as comparison in order to highlight the differences between the two groups to find out why one group could perform whereas the other groups was under-performing. Ultimately, it is hoped that the results would benefit the underachievers.

The literature written on the topic unveiled some controversial issues as well as established some well-known facts and observations with regard to the characteristics, causes and interventions about underachievement. Findings from previous research provided explanations and descriptions into the phenomenon. Past research also provided information about what had been done and found out so far and what recommendations were made.

The findings of this research supported the hypotheses, confirmed some previous research as well as revealed some insights. The findings indicated underachievers could come from a wide variety of backgrounds, tended to have lower self-concept and be less well engaged in self-regulation strategies.

The main purpose of this study is to investigate the self-concept of the students of different abilities - the students in the Gifted Education Programme (GEP) and the students in the Express Course and see whether the self-concept of the GEP students was significantly different from the students in the Express Course. The study also compared parents' expectations of the students in the GEP with the parents' expectations of the students in the Express Course. In addition, comparisons were made between these two groups of students with regard to their self-concept to each of these variables, academic achievement and perceived expectations of parents.

The sample comprised eighty-eight secondary one boys from both the GEP and Express Courses who obtained aggregate scores in the range of 240 to 275 points in Primary School Leaving Examination (PSLE) in 1997. Forty-four students from each course were selected for the study.

Academic achievement was measured by students' results in the school's second semester assessment in 1998. The results comprised the marks for their continual assessment, project work and the second semester exmaination. Selfconcept was measured by the Self-Esteem Checklist (SEC) (Lui, 1987) comprising subscales measuring the four facets of self-concept: general self, peers-social, homeparents and academic-school self-concept. Parents' expectations as perceived by students were measured by the Parents' Expectations Questionnaire (PEX) developed by Yeoh (1990). PEX measured the dimensions of parental push, expected results, appraisal, surveillance, belief in the importance of education, and aspirations.

In analyzing the data, the mean scores and correlation coefficients were compared between the students in the GEP and the students in the Express Course. The study found that:

1. Students in the Express Course had a higher total self-concept mean score than those in the GEP. There was a significant difference between their total and academic-school self-concept mean scores.

2. Students in the Express Course and GEP did not differ significantly with regard to parents' expectations of students' achievement

3. Generally, academic achievement was positively related to both total and academic-school self-concepts for both groups but where parents' expectations were concerned, it was negatively related.

4. Students in the GEP and students in the Express Course did not differ significantly in the relationship of parents' expectations and their self-concept.

The findings have implications for parents and students in their choice of special programmes such as the Gifted Education Programme offered in some selected schools in Singapore. Once again, the importance of academic achievement to selfconcept is emphasized. Although the role of parents' expectations appear to be limited, this finding may have been influenced by the nature of the sample which is made up of all boys. Generally, the findings seem to suggest that self-concept could be enhanced by significant others such as parents and teachers and also by special programmes in schools such as the Enrichment Programme and Pastoral Care and Career Guidance.

This exploratory study investigated perceptions of emotional maltreatment in a sample of Singaporean adolescents, and the degree of resultant adverse effects. Further, it examined whether adolescents varied in their perceptions of emotional maltreatment by their parents, in relation to their gender, academic performance, self-esteem and peer-relations. In addition, it also examined whether birth order amongst siblings in the family was a factor associated with parental emotional maltreatment of children.

The results reported a positive correlation between adolescents' perceptions of the frequency of occurrence of emotional maltreatment by parents and its adverse effects on them, suggesting that the greater adolescents perceived the occurrence of emotional maltreatment, the greater they would be affected by such maltreatment. Subsequently, the results also showed that both male and female adolescents were just as likely to experience such maltreatment by their parents.

Further, there were clearly factors which distinguished adolescents who reported higher occurrence of emotional maltreatment by parents than those who reported lower occurrence of such maltreatment. High and low self-esteem adolescents differed in their perceptions of emotional maltreatment by parents, with low self-esteem adolescents reporting higher incidences of such maltreatment. Similarly, the results also showed that high and low peer-relations adolescents were affected by emotional maltreatment by their parents. Low peer-relations adolescents reported higher occurrences of emotional maltreatment, and were more adversely affected than high peer-relations adolescents. In addition, the results also showed that adolescents who were the middle child reported higher occurrence of emotional maltreatment by their fathers, and were more adversely affected by such maltreatment than those who were the oldest child or youngest child.

The results of the study have implications for counselling and public education on the detrimental effects of emotional maltreatment by parents. The study further highlighted the importance of helping the public understand the needs of these adolescents, and to guide them so that they will not join deviant peer groups.