Sim, Jasper Hong

This exploratory study examines variation in voice onset time (VOT) in 12 English-Mandarin and English-Malay simultaneous bilingual preschoolers born and raised in Singapore. These children were not only different in their second L1, but they and their caregivers were also different in their language dominance, as are typical of speakers in such sociolinguistic contexts. This study seeks to explore effects of bilingualism and caregiver input on VOT development. The findings revealed differences in English VOT between Chinese and Malay children, and between Malay children—all of whom highly English dominant—that reflect the same variation previously found in the child-directed speech of Singaporean caregivers. The results also revealed category assimilation of Malay voiceless unaspirated and English fortis stops in some Malay children that could be attributed to the phonetic overlap in their input. Some unexplained individual variation and differences further highlight the complexity of bilingual phonological acquisition in such contexts.

Linguistic input in multi-lingual/-cultural contexts is highly variable. We examined the production of English and Malay laterals by fourteen early bilingual preschoolers in Singapore who were exposed to several allophones of coda laterals: Malay caregivers use predominantly clear-l in English and Malay, but their English coda laterals can also be l-less (vocalised/deleted) and in formal contexts, velarised. Contrastingly, the English coda laterals of the Chinese majority are typically l-less. Findings show that English coda laterals were overall more likely to be l-less than Malay laterals like their caregivers’, but English coda laterals produced by children with close Chinese peer(s) were more likely to be l-less than those without. All children produced English coda clear-l, demonstrating the transmission of an ethnic marker that had emerged from long-term contact. In diverse settings, variation is intrinsic to the acquisition process, and input properties and language experience are important considerations in predicting language outcomes.

Variability has been observed in the phonetic/phonological properties of child-directed speech from late-second language bilingual caregivers, but less is known about input variation among early bilinguals in multi-dialectal/multilingual contexts. This study examined English stop voicing contrasts in the adult-directed and child-directed speech of 30 Singaporean early bilingual mothers who differed in their other language (Mandarin/Malay) and language dominance. Results showed that, while Malay and Chinese mothers used similar voice onset time (VOT) for voicing contrast, they differed in where on the VOT continuum these contrasts were made, regardless of speech style and dominance. Compared to their English-dominant peers, Malay/Mandarin-dominant mothers also produced smaller contrasts overall. These patterns could be attributed to cross-linguistic influence, as well as effects of long-term language contact and the mothers’ linguistic experiences. Sub-phonemic variation adds complexity to child bilingual phonological acquisition, emphasising the need to consider input properties in sociolinguistically complex contexts.

Many children acquire the sound system of their language(s) in multi-accent environments. Yet, the variation and inconsistencies that exist in the linguistic input to these children and the effects of variable input on early phonological development remain relatively underexplored and underrepresented in the field of language acquisition. This chapter provides an overview of the growing body of work that examines early phonological acquisition in diverse contexts. It first describes the monolingual and bilingual contexts in which the phonetic and phonological properties of adult input can be particularly variable, followed by the different types of input variability. The implications of variable input on phonological development in children are then discussed, before some recommendations for researching early phonological acquisition.