Lim, Shirley S. L.

In this paper, we discuss our efforts in curriculum development of an environmental science module that will be conducted in a networked teaching and learning environment, complemented by laboratory sessions and field work. The aim of the curriculum is to promote collaborative and distributed learning of environmental science that emphasizes the acquisition of higher order thinking skills. Some aspects of the curriculum that will be highlighted include the contents of an interactive multimedia teaching system for self-paced learning, and scenario generators that allow the participants to experiment with hypothetical environmental situations.

There are several definitions of Problem Based Learning (PBL). For example, those of the Basudur Simplex Model, Kaufman and Swartz. The common features are: 1) Find and define the problem; 2) Examine facts and possibilities; 3) Consider alternative solutions; 4) Implement the best solution and 5) Problems should be related to the “real world”. However, in the natural sciences and mathematics, one often proceeds from “real world” problems to the conceptualisation of the abstract. Conceptualisation of the abstract is one of the tenets of the natural sciences and mathematics. Perhaps it is required less in the biological sciences, but it is increasingly required in physics and almost entirely in mathematics. The usual definitions of PBL have to be adapted to take into account the fact that conceptualisation of the abstract, rather than solving “real world” problems, is the end-product of many problems in the scientific disciplines. We give examples and counter-examples of the applicability of PBL integrated with information technology in our disciplines.

This report details the three keys aspects of the project ─ (a) the ideas and motivation of teachers to carry out inquiry, (b) students ideas about science learning in school, and (c) factors that could enhance science teacher professional development to carry out inquiry. In elementary science classrooms, we showed that: (1) while teachers express moderate to strong intention to teach science through inquiry they are constrained by numerous components in their classroom context, including goals of instruction, curriculum integration, learning environment, lesson strategies, student disposition and teacher disposition; (2) students value hands-on and collaborative experiences for learning science, suggesting a pedagogy characterized by clear learning goals and valuing a sense of community among learners; and (3) further training should focus on how to, more than why, teach through inquiry, adopting a paradigm that is responsive to different contexts.

The functional morphology of maxilliped-setation in three species of fiddler crabs—Petruca panamensis, Leptuca terpsichores and L. beebei— collected from Panama were studied using a comparative ecomorphological approach. The coverage of spoon-tipped (ST) and plumose (P) setae on the inner surface of the second maxilliped were noted, and the abundance of each setal type was enumerated, with crab carapace width as the covariate. These attributes were then related to the sediment particle size characterization of their respective collection sites for an ecomorphological comparison. All three species have mixed setation, albeit in different proportions of coverage. For L. terpsichores, the ST:P coverage was consistently ca. 70%:30% whereas there was approximately equal coverage of both setal types (i.e., 50% ST:50% P) on the maxillipeds of L. beebei and P. panamensis. Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) results of setal counts between the sexes in each species showed that the number of ST and P setae did not differ significantly between males and females, indicating an absence of sexual dimorphism in mouthpart setae. When all three species were compared—sexes combined within each species— ANCOVA results reveal that for any crab of a given size, there were significantly more ST setae on the second maxilliped of L. terpsichores (sediment from sampling site classified as ‘moderately-sorted medium sand’) than L. beebei (sediment from sampling site classified as ‘moderately-sorted fine sand’) and P. panamensis (a rocky-habitat species); no significant difference was detected between ST abundance in the latter two species. Current results provide unequivocal quantitative evidence that the abundance of ST setae can be an indicator to differentiate habitats down to the level of different sand-grain size, i.e., medium sand versus fine sand habitats of L. terpsichores and L. beebei, respectively. Both L. beebei and P. panamensis had significantly fewer ST setae than L. terpsichores, possibly because the former two species’ habitats have sediments with sand grains that are less coarse than the latter’s. On rocks, P. panamensis does not produce pseudofecal pellets as they directly swallow food materials pinched from the rock surfaces without sorting, rendering the role of ST setae of secondary importance. The three species did not differ significantly in P setae abundance, suggesting that the adaptive function of this type of setae to habitat characteristics remains debatable. The significance of ST setae as an ecomorphological adaptation for efficient food extraction from sandy sediments is, thus, evident in L. terpsichores. As for other two species—L. beebei and P. panamensis—that live in environments with finer sediment grain sizes, the adaptive role of ST setae is of diminished functional importance. Fiddler crab species with mixed setal types may have greater potential to exhibit feeding plasticity should their habitats be threatened.

The temporal-spatial resource use patterns of juvenile and adult Ocypode gaudichaudii were studied by comparing the zonation patterns and activity budgets of the two life stages at Culebra Beach, Panama. Burrow distribution of the crabs during the day and at night was studied over six months. Diurnal activity budgets of 46 crabs (22 juveniles and 24 adults) were determined by observing seven predominant behaviors upon emergence from their respective burrows when the burrow zone is uncovered after the tide recedes. The behaviors comprise three foraging-related activities (i.e., deposit-feeding, scavenging, and probing for food), the maintenance of burrow, walking, staying within the burrow, and resting at the burrow entrance. Juvenile crabs occupied a higher intertidal zone than the adults and had a higher emergence rate at night. This temporal-spatial habitat partitioning could possibly reduce intraspecific competition between the two life stages, thereby enabling their coexistence in the habitat as well as increasing the survival rate of the juveniles, potentially raising the carrying capacity of the population at Culebra Beach. All 46 crabs—regardless of life stage—spent the highest mean proportion of time on foraging-related activities. Out of the three feeding-related behaviors, adults spent most time on deposit-feeding while juveniles spent most time probing. Only juveniles scavenged. In both life stages, a similar proportion of time was spent maintaining the burrow and staying within the burrow.

Three common rocky shore littorinid taxa, i.e. Littoraria spp. (a collective term for L. strigata and L. articulate), Echinolittorina malaccana and E. vidua occupied different tidal heights based on field observations carried out at Tanjung [=Cape] Chek Jawa, Pulau [=Island] Ubin, Singapore in 2002. Littoraria spp. were consistently observed at a lower level on the shore than E. malaccana and E. vidua. Manually translated littorinids returned to their preferred zones in the field, i.e., E. malaccana returned to the region above the MHWS level of 2.7 m while Littoraria spp. remained below the region occupied by E. malaccana. Further, E. malaccana individuals with their shell nodules removed by filing did not occupy a lower zone than intact conspecifies in the field. Although significant temperature differences (TD) were observed between rock and surfaces in the laboratory (TD Littoraria = TD filed E. malaccana

Biological knowledge for citizenship rests at the nexus of two important concepts -scientific literacy and citizenship education. Scientific literacy, the ability to make sense of and hence decisions related to scientific issues, operates under the broad construct of citizenship. Citizenship education is defined by UNESCO as "educating children, from early childhood, to become clear-thinking and enlightened citizens who participate in decisions concerning society". As society moves further into the 21st century, many of the challenges facing 'sustainable societies' require scientifically literate citizens to participate at multiple societal levels. At the international level, many of the UN Sustainable Development Goals adopted by the world community have a scientific grounding in biology. This suggests that global citizenship education must take cognizance of biological knowledge. Through the theoretical lens of scientific literacy, pressing biological issues of food security, nutrition, biodiversity decline, and climate change are discussed in the chapter, making explicit the importance of biological knowledge for responsible global citizenship. These issues affect citizens at the community and individual levels through decisions linked to matters like food waste, diet, body mass index, and choice of food. Various learning approaches have been used to incorporate these matters into science curricula, such as through real-world learning.

Biology is a difficult and boring subject for many students and university enrollments for the discipline all over the world have not been encouraging for the past decade. One of the main reasons for the poor "image" of biology has always been blamed on the descriptive and jargon-filled nature of the discipline. With the current emphasis on the life sciences in Singapore, there is a dire need to review and develop biology teaching strategies that would facilitate the learning of the discipline as well as improve the attitudes of students to the subject and to themselves.

In this study, some major theories on the improvement of biology teaching are outlined. This is followed by a systematic review of specifically designed teaching strategies such as (1) the word roots system to overcome the terminology syndrome; (2) appropriate use of multimedia; (3) problem based learning (PBL); (4) outdoors and field based laboratories and, assessment strategies.

Results of a survey administered to the author's students showed that students were highly positive about the learning, teaching and assessment strategies implemented in the modules that the author taught (i.e., NAB311 "Invertebrate Zoology", BAB203 "Lower and Higher Animals", NAB319 "Ecology and Biostatistics" and NRE381 "Research Exercise"). Further modifications in the curricula of the various modules to improve the teaching of biology were briefly discussed based on the results of the survey and current literature.