Tan, Jernice

The purpose of this study is to compare the balance control of participants with and without HI and also to investigate the effect of a Balance Programme (BP) on their balance control (HI; n = 2, M age = 7 years old). The BP consisted of six practice sessions of 45 minutes each. The Balance Tasks used to assess balance control were static Balance Tasks: two-leg stand, one-leg stand and dynamic Balance Tasks: in-place jump and in-place hop. Kinetic data such as the Centre of Pressure (COP) and the Ground Reaction Force (GRF) was captured using a force plate. The results revealed differences in Balance Tasks involving static and dynamic balance control between participants with HI and without HI. Improvement in balance control of the participants is observed for some of the Balance Tasks after the introduction of the BP which indicates the inconclusive effectiveness of the BP. The authors suggest that the instructional approach and number of practice sessions may be the contributing factors affecting the effectiveness of the BP. A new BP with an alternative instructional approach together with more practice sessions is warranted to benefit both children with and without HI so as to make inclusion possible.

Balance control is integral to the fundamentals of stability, locomotion and manipulation throughout life. Poor balance control delays the development of motor skills and affects future motor performance. Optimal balance control requires the complex sensory-motor integration of Central Nervous System (CNS) with the various sensory systems (visual, somatosensory, vestibular & auditory systems). As a result of the individual constraints due to sensory disabilities, the adolescents with Hearing Impairment (HI) may exhibit poorer balance abilities and less developed motor skills than their peers with typical hearing. Motor intervention programmes have shown promising results in improving balance control. However, such programmes are not documented for the adolescents with HI. This study aimed to investigate the differences in the balance control between adolescents with HI and their peers with typical hearing, evaluate the effect of Balance Programme (BP) and examine the differences in the process of acquiring balance control during BP.

This study adopted a group-control experimental research design with repeated measures. Twenty-four female adolescents (age range: 12 – 16 years) participated in this study and were classified into three groups – the adolescents with HI who attended BP (HI group: n = 7), the adolescents with typical hearing who attended BP (Hearing group: n = 9) and the adolescents with typical hearing who did not attend BP (Control group: n = 8). The MAND instrument (McCarron, 1997) was used to assess the balance abilities of the participants. The balance control exhibited through the Balance Tasks selected for this study (Romberg stand, One-leg stand, Tandem stand, in-place Jump & in-place Hop) was measured using a portable force platform. The BP consisted of 12 practices (9 x 35-minute group practices & 3 x 45-minute individual practices), conducted three times a week over four weeks.

Overall, the pretest results of MAND tasks showed that the HI group scored significantly poorer Kinaesthetic Integration (KI) factor scores than the Hearing and Control groups (p ≤ .05; McCarron, 1997). In addition, the pretest results of Balance Tasks showed that there was no significant difference in static balance control (p > .05) but significant differences in dynamic balance control between HI group, Hearing and Control groups (p ≤ .05). Specifically, the adolescents with HI showed significantly poorer dynamic balance control than their peers with typical hearing (p ≤ .05).

After attending the BP, the pretest-posttest results showed that the HI and Hearing groups made significant improvements in KI factor scores which is an indication of improved balance abilities (p ≤ .05; McCarron, 1997). In addition, the HI and Hearing groups made significant improvements in their gross motor skills (p ≤ .05). The pretest-posttest results of Balance Tasks further reported that the HI and Hearing groups improved significantly in static (One-leg stand under eyes-open & eyes-closed) and dynamic balance control (in-place Jump & in-place Hop; p ≤ .05). With the exception of Romberg stand, the repeated measures results of balance control observed more significant improvements than deteriorations from the practice sessions during BP for all Balance Tasks (p ≤ .05).

Intra-individual analysis also corroborated with the statistical group analysis to support the positive effect of BP in improving balance abilities and balance control. Specifically, most of the participants with HI showed improved balance abilities and balance control after attending BP. Based on these findings, the BP was able to improve the balance control of adolescents with HI and their peers with typical hearing with varied balance proficiencies. It is recommended that similar balance-focused activities could be incorporated within the PE lessons of adolescents with HI to improve their balance control.

In Singapore, training for pre-service special education (PSSE) teachers is supported by a ten-week special education teaching (SET) practicum process in special school setting. In the first four weeks of SET practicum PSSE teachers are familiarized with their pupils, class routines, school culture and administrative processes within the school. The PSSE teachers were guided in lesson preparation and delivery by way of written and face-to-face feedback. Following this handholding, the PSSE teachers are observed by supervisors and cooperating teachers in the school and the University supervisors and they are graded for their overall performance of the SET practicum. This study focuses on the learning experiences of the PSSE teachers during the ten-week SET practicum in their respective special schools. The PSSE teachers completed a survey the week following completion of their practicum experience in school. Thirty-three (Male = 3; Female = 30) PSSE teachers participated in the survey. The survey instrument used a 4-point Likert scale which included two sections: (a) Teachers’ Response to the Practicum Experience their Learning Experience and (b) The process of the SET Practicum. The overall findings indicate that the PSSE teachers had positive experiences. Although the majority of PSSE teachers indicated that they enjoyed the SET practicum, their reasons varied. They felt that their supervisors both within the school and the University understood and the SET practice process and also conveyed the correct SET practicum process to them. The findings of this study are discussed in the light of recommended improvements to the SET practicum process for the PSSE teachers in special schools.

Many studies have found an association between rudimentary motor development delays and the use of baby walkers. However, no literature on the influence of baby walkers and fundamental motor development was found. This study investigated the fundamental locomotor skills of 14 toddlers (M Age = 49 months) who were baby walker users and compared their locomotor performances with the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2, Ulrich, 2000) norm population of the same age group using the TGMD-2 locomotor subtest. Data analysis using one sample t test was carried out with SPSS 14.0~^Ⓡ.

Irrespective of outlier, the results showed significant difference in running and sliding of which the baby walker users in this study fared significantly poorer in running but significantly better in sliding than the TGMD-2 norm population. In addition, there was a significant difference in the overall locomotor performance in terms of age equivalent which indicated that the baby walker users in this study were not exhibiting poorer fundamental locomotor performance than the TGMD-2 norm population. However, the baby walker users in this study did not demonstrate mastery in hopping and leaping.

Based on the findings of this study, delays in motor skills during the rudimentary stage do not continue in the fundamental stage of motor development. This suggests new insights to the opinions of stakeholders in the field of Early Childhood Education as well as the decisions of parents andlor caregivers to use baby walkers in the future. A larger sample size with comparative norm population gathered from the same cultural background which uses both locomotor and object control subtests of the TGMD-2 to obtain a more meaningful interpretation of gross motor development is recommended for future studies.

Many international studies have examined the gross motor skills of children studying in special schools while local studies of such nature are limited. This study investigated the gross motor skills of children with Mild Learning Disabilities (MLD; n = 14, M age = 8.93 years, SD = .33) with the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2, Ulrich, 2000). The TGMD-2 consists of 12 items equally divided into two subtests (locomotor and object control). The locomotor subtest includes run, gallop, hop, leap, horizontal jump and slide while the object control subtest includes strike a stationary ball, stationary dribble, kick, catch, overhand throw and underhand roll. The results revealed significant differences in 8 out of 12 test items: gallop, hop, leap, horizontal jump, slide, strike, dribble and roll at mastery level between children with MLD and TGMD-2 norm population. The authors suggest motor interventions for children with MLD to improve their gross motor skills.