Goh, Christine Chuen Meng

Lexical segmentation (LS) is a key decoding process that contributes directly to perceptual processing, which in turn supports the parsing of spoken input into meaningful mental models. LS skills enable listeners to analyze sounds in the speech stream and match them to lexical and syntactic stores in memory, the product of which leaves listeners with a literal interpretation of an utterance. This entry explains processing issues faced by second language listeners, with particular reference to bottom-up processing, and makes a case for developing LS through contextualized activities. It suggests a number of activities that give learners practice at differentiating between words in a speech stream and recognizing intonational features that can assist segmentation of units of meaning.

Second language (L2) learners often experience challenges when they listen. This is due to limitations in their ability to recognise words in streams of speech, apply their knowledge of L2 vocabulary and grammar to process the input, and construct an interpretation that is reasonably complete by using their prior and contextual knowledge. In this paper I consider the importance of identifying learners' cognitive processing problems and why it should be a basis or rationale for conducting L2 listening research. I do this by reviewing ideas discussed in my 2000 System paper which reported a study on L2 learners' real-time cognitive problems during perceptual processing, parsing and utilisation, and proposed pedagogical ideas for developing skills and strategies for overcoming these problems. These early findings on learners' real-time listening problems have lent support to the need for investigating how internal factors might impinge on cognitive processes and pedagogical interventions that may help to improve learners' cognitive processing. I offer suggestions for expanding the scope of research on learners' listening difficulties and distilling new questions from some current lines of inquiry. I also recommend that L2 researchers work with researchers in areas such as neuroscience to adopt new tools and methods for investigating learners’ cognitive processes.

This chapter presents a brief overview of the process of listening comprehension and some of the learner factors affecting the outcome of this process, highlighting many of the mental processes that occur in language listeners. It will help teachers understand the complexities involved in listening and be more sensitive to the diverse learning needs of their learners, offering a theoretical framework for teaching the processes of listening. It further highlights some of the learner factors that appear to be related to L2 listening ability and the need to further explore potential causal relationships between learner variables and L2 listening comprehension.

The value of listening and speaking (oracy) competence for English language learners is not limited to day-to-day communication. L2 oracy is essential for academic learning, creative and critical thinking, collaboration and innovation in our globalised world of the 21st century. At a more fundamental level, listening and speaking are essential to the process of language acquisition, as they strengthen language learners’ overall development of the English language regardless of their age or learning circumstances. In this article, I suggest that we should review approaches to listening and speaking instruction and call for it to be reconceptualised so that language learners can be personally involved in understanding, enhancing and managing their learning processes in a holistic manner. I also propose including more direct teaching of L2 listening and speaking through well-structured lessons and metacognitive activities to enable learners to observe their learning processes and examine elements of language and discourse required for successful completion of oracy learning tasks. This enhanced conception of L2 oracy instruction will rely heavily on teachers’ ability and commitment to make teaching explicit and scaffold processes of learning. Underpinning my discussion is the key role of metacognition in language learning.

Teacher knowledge, as an important cognitive basis of teaching, has attracted tremendous attention in educational research in the last few decades. This study examines whether teachers’ self-perceived knowledge about oral English teaching differs with regard to their professional profiles in the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) context in China. A sample of 527 teachers from 56 universities in 29 cities across the country responded to a self-report questionnaire. Thirty teachers were interviewed. Teachers’ self-perceived knowledge was assessed by two factors: pedagogical content knowledge about oral English teaching (PCK) and knowledge of students’ oral English characteristics (KOS). The reliability and validity of the instrument are tested and presented. Results showed that EFL teachers generally reported having insufficient PCK and KOS. ANOVA and t-tests revealed no significant knowledge difference among teachers with different teaching experiences, training and overseas exposure. However, teachers’ learning experiences, self-perceived speaking ability and familiarity with teaching methodologies were found to influence teacher knowledge in a significant way. The findings highlight the need for the development of teacher knowledge about oral English teaching in the EFL contexts. Suggestions for further research are provided.