Chow, Jia Yi

Investigations into the relative effectiveness of either focusing on movement form (Internal Focus) or movement effects (External Focus) have tended to dominate research on instructional constraints. However, rather than adopting a comparative approach to determine which focus of attention is more effective, analysis of the relative efficacy of each specific instruction focus during motor learning could be more relevant for both researchers and practitioners. Theoretical advances in the motor learning literature from a nonlinear dynamics perspective might explain the processes that underlie the effect of different attentional focus instructions. Referencing ideas and concepts from a current motor-learning model, differential effects of either Internal or External focus of instructions are examined. This paper also highlights some deficiencies in extant theory and research design on focus of attention which require further investigations.

The aim of this paper is to show how principles of ecological psychology and dynamical systems theory can underpin a philosophy of coaching practice in a non-llnear pedagogy. Nonlinear pedagogy is based on a view of the human movement system as a nonlinear dynamical system and has been basically defined as the application of concepts and tools of nonlinear dynamics to coaching practice. A systems orientation is adopted to show how nonlinear dynamical movement systems demonstrate an openness to environmental information flows, use inherent degeneracy to adapt movements to dynamic environments, show capacity for self-organisation, and fluctuate between stability and instability as changes in constraints on performance shape transitions in system organisation. We demonstrate how this perspective of the human movement system can aid understanding of motor learning processes and underpin practice /or sports coaches. We provide a description of nonlinear pedagogy followed by a consideration of some of the fundamental principles of ecological psychology and dynamical systems theory that underpin it as a coaching philosophy. We illustrate how each principle impacts on nonlinear pedagogical coaching practice, demonstrating how they can substantiate a framework for the coaching process.

With the Ministry of Education’s (MOE) focus on using ICT in resourceful and innovative ways to improve teaching and learning (MOE, 2014), PE teachers should be trained and equipped with strategies to create environments where students are given more autonomy to decide ‘what’ to learn and ‘how’ to learn, according to students’ ability to use Information Communication and Technologies (ICT). For example, making available e-learning materials related to the lesson before and after the class affords students opportunities to learn more readily on their own than when these materials are absent. Using video recording to provide visual and verbal feedback from the teacher or among peers for skill performance during a lesson is just one of many ways ICT can be used to maximise students’ learning and develop the affective, psychomotor, and cognitive domains set out in the PE syllabus. The advantages of providing students with opportunities to harness ICT can be directly beneficial for skills acquisition and indirectly for honing life skills.

This study investigated how developmental ten-pin bowlers can better transit to a heavier ball by comparing differences in performance outcomes and movement execution between two ball weights. Eight pre-transited bowlers bowled 10 first-frame trials each in two ball weight conditions: normal (NB) and heavy (HB); of which 3 trials were analysed. Full body joint kinematics were recorded via a 3D motion capture system. Paired sample t-test on performance outcome, joint kinematics and kinetics was conducted. No differences in performance outcome and peak joint velocities were found (p>0.05). Bowling with the HB resulted in higher peak elbow extension moment and quicker third step, with differences in left shoulder rotation and ankles abduction during the movement (p<0.05). Results suggest strengthening of the musculature around the shoulder and arm to prepare for the transition.

This study investigated how motor system degrees of freedom were organized as skilled players performed a soccer chipping task. Using an intra-participant analysis, inter-individual kinematics and performance differences were investigated to determine the features governing coordination of skilled chipping actions. Five skilled participants were studied as they performed 10 soccer chips to one target position and another 15 soccer chips to three positions, all with different specific height and accuracy task constraints. Although a 'global coordination pattern' was identified for skilled soccer chipping, subtle inter-individual differences in coordination, displacement of center of mass (COM), selected kinematic variables for the kicking limb and the role of the non-kicking limb were also observed. It was noted that participants were able to adapt foot velocity to different target positions in successfully meeting the task goal. Results highlighted advantages of examining intra-participant data for understanding how skilled performers re-organize motor system degrees of freedom in achieving functional movement behaviors.

A constraints-based perspective has the potential to provide physical educators with a framework for understanding how performer, task and environmental constraints shape each individual’s physical education. Understanding the underlying neurobiological processes present in a constraints-led perspective to skill acquisition and game play can raise awareness of physical educators that teaching is a dynamic ‘art’ interwoven with the ‘science’ of motor learning theories.

Nonlinear Pedagogy is an exploratory approach to teaching and learning Physical Education that can be potentially effective to help children acquire relevant 21st century competencies. Underpinned by Ecological Dynamics, the focus of Nonlinear Pedagogy is on the learner and includes the provision of less prescriptive instructions, and guided discovery which serve to develop greater autonomy, competency and relatedness in the learning process. This paper describes a study that examines the factors that contributed to motivation, enjoyment and the development of 21st century competencies in Primary School Children. 133 children were taught over 7-weeks to play a modified tennis game either with a Nonlinear Pedagogy or Linear Pedagogy (i.e., more teacher-centred) approach in a Singapore school. While findings from the IMI questionnaire showed that there was no difference for the subscales measured, student and teacher interviews indicated that the Nonlinear Pedagogy approach created a learning environment that facilitated perceived competence, autonomy and relatedness, thus potentially enhancing intrinsic motivation and enjoyment during practice. Nonlinear Pedagogy encourages teachers to create representative learning designs through the inclusion of a variety of modified games, the freedom to choose, an emphasis on exploration and problem-solving and can be relevant to develop 21st century competencies.

In physical education, the Teaching Games for Understanding (TGfU) pedagogical strategy has attracted significant attention from theoreticians and educators alike because it allows the development of game education through a tactic-to-skill approach based on the use of modified games. However, it has been argued that, as an educational framework, it currently lacks adequate theoretical grounding from motor learning perspectives to empirically augment its’ perceived effectiveness by educators. In this paper we examine the literature providing the theoretical underpinning for TGfU and explore the potential of a nonlinear pedagogical framework, based on Dynamical Systems Theory, as a suitable explanation for TGfU’s effectiveness as a strategy in physical education teaching. The basis of nonlinear pedagogy involves the manipulation of key task constraints on learners to facilitate the emergence of functional movement and decision-making behaviors. We explain how interpretation of motor learning processes from a nonlinear pedagogical framework can underpin educational principles of TGfU and provide a theoretical rationale for guiding implementation of learning progressions in physical education.

The ability to pick-up task relevant visual information during movement control is crucial in successful sport performance. Quiet eye (QE), the final fixation prior to final movement onset, has been shown to be characteristic of the visual search strategies exhibited by skilled athletes in self-paced aiming tasks. Longer QE durations were previously associated with skill and successful performance outcomes. In this study, gaze behaviour data of six expert (E) and six novice (N) ten-pin bowlers were measured using a mobile eye tracker as they completed 20 trials of two single-pin conditions each (Easy: 1-pin; Hard: 10-pin). Expert bowlers exhibited significantly longer QE durations in both conditions as compared to their less skilled counterparts. However, QE duration was not found to be significantly different as a function of accuracy nor task condition. Further detailed analysis revealed considerable variance in QE characteristics between individuals, warranting the need to explore individualized interventions centered on the development of perceptual-motor control during selfpaced aiming tasks. Moreover, this study raised an important methodological issue relating to the analysis of trials with the absence of QE.

Cognitive training techniques such as motor imagery (MI)–cognitive simulation of movement, has been found to successfully facilitate skill acquisition. The MI literature emphasizes the need to accurately imitate key elements of motor execution to facilitate improved performance outcomes. However, there is a scarcity of MI research investigating how contemporary approaches to motor learning, such as nonlinear pedagogy (NLP), can be integrated into MI practice. Grounded in an ecological dynamics approach to human movement, NLP proposes that skilled action is an emergent process that results from continuous interactions between perceptual information of the environment and movement. This emergent process can be facilitated by the manipulation of key task constraints that aim to encourage learners to explore movement solutions that satisfy individual constraints (e.g., height and weight) and achieve successful performance outcomes. The aim of the present study was to explore the application of a NLP approach to MI approach for skill acquisition. Fourteen weightlifting beginners (two female and 12 male) participated in a 4-week intervention involving either NLP (i.e. analogy-based instructions and manipulation of task constraints) or a linear pedagogy (LP; prescriptive instructions of optimal technique, repetition of same movement form) to learn a complex weightlifting derivative. Performance accuracy, movement criterion (barbell trajectory type), kinematic data, and quantity of exploration/exploitation were measured pre-mid-post intervention. No significant differences (p = .438) were observed in the amount of exploration between LP (EER = 0.41) and NLP (EER = 0.26) conditions. Equivalent changes in rearward displacement (R×D) were observed with no significant differences between conditions for technique assessments 1, 2, or 3 (p = .13 - .67). Both NLP and LP conditions were found to primarily demonstrate ‘sub-optimal’ type 3 barbell trajectories (NLP = 72%; LP = 54%). These results suggest that MI instructions prescribing a specific movement form (i.e., LP condition) are ineffective in restricting available movements to a prescribed technique but rather the inherent task constraints appear to ‘force’ learners to explore alternative movement solutions to achieve successful performance outcomes. Although MI instructions prescribing specific techniques have previously supported improved skill development, the current findings indicate that learners may self-organise their movements regardless of MI instructions to satisfy individual and task constraints while achieving improved performance. Therefore, it may be beneficial to consider scripts that are more outcome focused and incorporate task constraints to facilitate learners’ inherent exploration of individual task solutions.