Wang, John Chee Keng

This chapter examines key theories that relate to both the “what” and “whys” of motivation and goal setting in sport. Integrated regulation is the most self-determined form of extrinsic motivation. It involves behaviors that are performed in harmony with one’s beliefs and values. Athletes who are autonomously motivated in the sport can sustain their motivation, perform better, and have higher levels of well-being than those with controlled motivation. The chapter provides links between these theories and wider motivational theories related to goal setting. The chapter outlines the applied implications and offer some take home messages for athletes, coaches, and sport psychology practitioners. Among all the motivational theories, Self-Determination Theory and Achievement Goal Theory are the most dominant theories in the study of competitive sport motivation. There are clear benefits to pursuing goals with autonomous motives, such as for reasons of enjoyment and personal importance.

Physical activity (PA) is a green and effective way to maintain health. Research in the field of motivation in PA is always an important research topic for researchers and policymakers in maintaining public health, but few studies focus on the development of motivation in PA research. Summarize the research strengths, hotspots, and stages of scientific evolution in the field of motivation in PA by performing visualization analysis which used CiteSpace software on 2375 publications including from January 1st, 1980, to January 31st, 2024, in the Web of Science Core Collection (WOSCC). The findings are as follows: (1) Over the past thirty years, the field has developed rapidly, with current characteristics aligning with the third stage of the four-stage model of scientific evolution. (2) Core countries and core institutions have been formed, with the most influential country being the United Kingdom, and the most influential institution being Brown University. (3) The research hotspot focuses on intervention research in the field of motivation in PA under self-determination theory (SDT). This study provides researchers with an overview of the development in the field of motivation in PA research. It offers valuable information to researchers for identifying potential collaborators (institutions) and better positioning their research directions.

Digital gaming is fast becoming a favorite activity all over the world. Yet very few studies have examined the underlying motivational processes involved in digital gaming. One motivational force that receives little attention in psychology is passion, which could help us understand the motivation of gamers. The purpose of the present study was to identify subgroups of young people with distinctive passion profiles on self-determined regulations, flow dispositions, affect, and engagement time in gaming. One hundred fifty-five students from two secondary schools in Singapore participated in the survey. There were 134 males and 8 females (13 unspecified). The participants completed a questionnaire to measure harmonious passion (HP), obsessive passion (OP), perceived locus of causality, disposition flow, positive and negative affects, and engagement time in gaming. Cluster analysis found three clusters with distinct passion profiles. The first cluster had an average HP/OP profile, the second cluster had a low HP/OP profile, and the third cluster had a high HP/OP profile. The three clusters displayed different levels of cognitive, affective, and behavioral outcomes. Cluster analysis, as this study shows, is useful in identifying groups of gamers with different passion profiles. It has helped us gain a deeper understanding of motivation in digital gaming.

The purposes of the present study were to examine the domain specificity of flow and its relationships with different motivation regulations in sport and academic. The sample consisted of 224 competitive student-athletes (126 males, 97 females, 1 missing) from Singapore universities with mean age of 22.73 years (SD = 2.76). Data was collected through a self-reported questionnaire to assess seven motivation types in Self-Determination Theory (SDT) and flow disposition in sport and academic domains. Findings revealed that there is a positive link between flow in sport and in academic at a cross-domain level. In addition, male student-athletes reported higher flow tendencies in both sports and academics. Male student-athletes in individual sport reported higher intrinsic motivation (IM) to accomplish and flow tendencies than male in team sport, but female student-athletes in team sport reported higher IM to accomplish and flow tendencies to accomplish than individual sport. IM to experience stimulation positively predicted flow in sport, while in academic domain, IM to know and identified regulation are positive predictors of flow. The findings of this study showed that IM to experience stimulation in sport and academic domains could positively predict flow.

The present study examined the psychometric properties of the Life Effectiveness Questionnaire - Version H (LEQ-H), an instrument for the assessment of life skills in project work (PW) context with Singaporean students. Specifically, we examined the internal consistency, as well as discriminant and convergent validity of the subscales in LEQ-H. Second, I've tested the proposed measurement model against four other alternative models and confirmed with a second sample. In addition, I've examined the invariance of the measurement tool across gender. A total of 1,264 secondary school students were recruited from nine typical government funded co-educational secondary schools in Singapore. All the subscales had adequate internal consistency but two subscales lacked convergent validity. Five competing models were compared using confirmatory factor analyses. The results provide evidence of a seven first-order measurement model of the LEQ-H. Multi-group analysis demonstrated invariance of the factor forms, factor loadings, factor variances, and factor covariances, error variances and disturbances across gender. In summa!)', the findings affirm that the LEQ-H, with the seven first-order measurement model, can be an appropriate measurement tool to assess the effects of PW on students' life skills such as time management, social competence, achievement motivation, task leadership, emotional control, active initiative and self-confidence.

The current research tested the hypothesis that individuals engaged in long-term efforts to limit food intake (e.g., individuals with high eating restraint) would have reduced capacity to regulate eating when self-control resources are limited. In the current research, body mass index (BMI) was used as a proxy for eating restraint based on the assumption that individuals with high BMI would have elevated levels of chronic eating restraint. A preliminary study (Study 1) aimed to provide evidence for the assumed relationship between eating restraint and BMI. Participants (N = 72) categorized into high or normal-range BMI groups completed the eating restraint scale. Consistent with the hypothesis, results revealed significantly higher scores on the weight fluctuation and concern for dieting subscales of the restraint scale among participants in the high BMI group compared to the normal-range BMI group. The main study (Study 2) aimed to test the hypothesized interactive effect of BMI and diminished self-control resources on eating behavior. Participants (N = 83) classified as having high or normal-range BMI were randomly allocated to receive a challenging counting task that depleted self-control resources (ego-depletion condition) or a non-depleting control task (no depletion condition). Participants then engaged in a second task in which required tasting and rating tempting cookies and candies. Amount of food consumed during the taste-and-rate task constituted the behavioral dependent measure. Regression analyses revealed a significant interaction effect of these variables on amount of food eaten in the taste-and-rate task. Individuals with high BMI had reduced capacity to regulate eating under conditions of self-control resource depletion as predicted. The interactive effects of BMI and self-control resource depletion on eating behavior were independent of trait self-control. Results extend knowledge of the role of self-control in regulating eating behavior and provide support for a limited-resource model of self-control.

Adolescence is a critical period in the study of physical activity (PA). Research evidence has shown that there is a decline in participation in P A in young people over their teenage years with ages 11 to 12 thought to be a critical age period at which PA begins to diminish. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between students' perceived autonomy support, behavioural regulations, and enjoyment in a physical education (PE) context, using a selfdetermination theory framework. Participants were 1854 secondary school students aged between 13 and 19 years from Singapore. Questionnaires were used to access perceived autonomy support, behavioural regulations, and enjoyment in PE. Results showed that perceived autonomy support predicted more self-determined forms of behavioural regulations in PE (intrinsic and identified) positively and negatively predicted more controlling forms of regulations (external and amotivation). Only intrinsic motivation positively predicted enjoyment. On the other hand, amotivation negatively predicted enjoyment. The findings highlight the importance of perceived autonomy support in fostering more self-determined forms of behavioural regulations and intrinsic motivation in school PE.

Building upon tenets of the theory of planned behavior, the present study examined whether school-based intervention programs that aimed to change attitudes, perceptions of control, or both attitudes and perceptions of control in combination, was successful in promoting participation in leisure time physical activities. Participants were 13 72 pupils recruited from 10 secondary schools and exercised for less than 3-days per week in the previous month. Using a cluster-randomized design, participants were presented with one of the intervention conditions each lasting 10 minutes delivered as part of physical education classes twice per week over a period of 8 weeks. The interventions included: (i) an attitude-based intervention that targeted salient behavioral beliefs; (ii) a second attitude-based intervention that targeted non-salient behavioral beliefs; (iiz) a control-based intervention program that targeted salient control beliefs; and (iv) a combined intervention program that targeted both salient control beliefs and salient behavioral beliefs. Results indicated that while all of the intervention programs resulted in increased participation in leisure time physical activity, the combined intervention program targeting change in attitudes and perceptions of control was least effective. Overall, the findings suggest that schools and teachers can promote leisure time physical activity through brief, cost-effective interventions.